The
ages of consent for sexual activity vary by
jurisdiction across
Europe.
Spain
sets its age
of consent at 13, and the rest of the countries
have an age of consent between 14 and
17, exceptTurkey
and Malta
, which have
the highest age limit, set at 18. The laws
can also stipulate the specific activities that are permitted
and/or differentially specify the age at which a given gender can
participate. Below is a discussion of the various laws dealing with
this subject. The highlighted age refers to an age at or above
which an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with
another who is also at or above that age.
Other variables, for
close in age exceptions may exist, for relating to defences in
Cyprus
and Greece
(that
applies for heterosexual and lesbian sexual conduct only and not
for male-male sexual conduct) and a higher age of consent just for
male-male sexual conduct are noted in Gibraltar
, Greece (for the
male-male partners over 18) and Guernsey
. All
other places in Europe have an equal age of consent, regardless of
sexual orientation and/or
gender.
Age of consent laws Worldwide
Albania
Since
2001, the age of consent in Albania
has been
14, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation
[286515] [286516] [286517].
Andorra
The age of
consent in Andorra
is
16, as specified by Article 206, which reads:
"Whoever, without violence or intimidation, has had a carnal
relationship with a minor 'older than fourteen years and less
than sixteen years will be punished by a maximum penalty of
imprisonment of six years."
Andorran Criminal Code
Austria
The
general age of consent in Austria
is
14, as specified by Section 206 of the penal code. (The term
unmündig is specified in
Section 74 of the penal code.) Paragraph 4 of
Section 206 defines a close-in-age exception of max. three
years.
Section 207b of the penal code contains an
exception to the general age of consent: if one of the partners is
younger than 16 years of age and “not sufficiently mature to
understand the significance of the act”, then the act is
punishable.
History
The Austrian Criminal Code previously specified 18 as the age of
consent for homosexual sex in which the other partner was aged
14–18, while no equivalent provision existed for heterosexual
sexual conduct; this was Section 209 of the Criminal Code. In
November 1996, an amendment was put before the Austrian Parliament
to remove Section 209; but the vote ended in a draw, and the
amendment failed to pass. In July 1998, a similar amendment was put
forward; it was voted down by the conservative majority. Section
209 came into force when homosexuality between males became legal
in 1971.
On 24 June 2002, the Austrian Constitutional Court ruled that
Section 209 was unconstitutional. The Section was later repealed on
14 August 2002. On 9 January 2003, the European Court of Human
Rights held, in
L & V v Austria, that Section 209
violated Articles 8 and 14 of the
European Convention on Human
Rights.
Belarus
The age of
consent in Belarus
is
16, as specified by Articles 168 and 169, which
read: "Sexual relations, sodomy, lesbian acts or other actions
of sexual character of an adult, reached eighteen years of age,
with a person who obviously 'has not reached sixteen years
of age, at absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated
by articles 166 and 167 present codes, are punished by restriction
of freedom of two years to four years or by imprisonment of two
years to five years." and "Dissolute actions accomplished
by a person, reached eighteen years of age, concerning a person who
obviously has not reached sixteen years of age, at
absence of attributes of the crimes stipulated by articles 166, 167
and 168 present codes, are punished by arrest of about six months
or imprisonment of one year to three
years."
Belarus Criminal Code (in Russian) (relevant
articles last changed by laws in May 4, 2005 - National register of
legal acts of Byelorussia, 2005, № 74, 2/1112)
Provisionally english translation of the relevant
articles of the Belarus Criminal Code
Belgium
The age of
consent in Belgium
is
16, as specified by Article 372, which
reads:
"
All indecent assaults on modesty committed without violence or
threat, by a person or by aiding the person, of a child of either
sex, 'aged less than sixteen
, will be punished by
imprisonment (of five years to ten years).
Belgian Criminal Code :
in French &
in Dutch
History
The Belgian Criminal Code previously specified an age of consent of
18 for homosexual sex. This provision - Article 372(2) - was
repealed in 1985.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The age of
consent in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
is 14. This is not
expressly stated in legislation, although Article 207 (Sexual
Intercourse with a Child) reads "
Whoever performs sexual
intercourse or equivalent sexual act on a child, shall be punished
by imprisonment for a term between one and eight years" and
Article 2(8) reads "
A child, as referred to in this Code, is a
person who 'has not reached fourteen years
of
age".
Bulgaria
The age
of consent in Bulgaria
is 14, as specified by Articles
149 and 151 (1). However Article 151(2) has a provision for
those who are over 14 and do "
not understand the
characteristics or the importance of the act."
Art. 151. (1) Who copulates with a person who
'has not accomplished 14 years of
age
,inasmuch as the act does not constitute a
crime according to art. 152, shall be punished
byimprisonment of two to five
years.'
Art. 149. (1) Who commits an act in order to
arouse or satisfy a sexual desire without a copulation regarding a
person who' has not accomplished 14 years of age
shall
be punished for fornication by imprisonment of up to five
years.
Bulgarian Criminal Code
Croatia
The age
of consent in Croatia
is 14 as specified by the Croatian
Criminal Code. The acts themselves ban "sexual relations
with a child" while it is later defined that a child is a person
under the age of 14.
NN
110 art 192 (1997) (in croatian)
History
Homosexual acts were illegal until 1977, when Croatia, then as a
Yugoslav Federal Republic, changed its Penal Code. Age of consent
was equalised in 1998.
Cyprus
The age
of consent for "carnal knowledge"/"fornication" (penetration) in
Cyprus is 17 for both heterosexual and
homosexual acts. {Article 154} The Age of Consent for
Woman/Boy anal intercourse is 13 years. No age limit for other
contacts.
History
Until 1998, homosexual acts between men were entirely forbidden
under Section 171 (1929). In 1989, Alecos Modinos, president of the
Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement, brought a case to the European
Court of Human Rights. In 1993, the Court held that the prohibition
of homosexual acts was a violation of Article 8. In January 1995,
the Cypriot Government introduced a Bill in the Cypriot Parliament
which would have abolished the ban. Strong opposition from the
Church meant the Bill stalled when
referred to the Parliament's Legal Affairs Committee. The European
Commission repeated its warning that Cyprus must follow the Court's
ruling. In May 1997, again a government measure to repeal the ban
failed because of the strength of the opposition. In April 1998,
the Council of Europe set a deadline for compliance of 29 May 1998
and on 21 May 1998, the House of Representatives voted 36 to 8 in
favour legalising homosexual acts. However it was set at 18 while
heterosexual acts remained at 16.
In 2002, under pressure from the EU the parliament finally ended
the disparate provisions and changed the age of consent to 17 for
both hetero and homosexual acts.
Northern Cyprus
Unilaterally declared Turkish
Republic of Northern Cyprus
has the age of consent for females at
16 as designated in the Penal Code (Ceza
Yasası, Art. 154). Sexual contact with a female between
13 and 16 years of age is considered a misdemeanour (
Ceza
Yasası, Art. 153). There is no age of consent determined for
males and Northern Cyprus maintains
sodomy
laws abolished in the Republic of Cyprus, making sexual contact
between males illegal and perpetrators of "sexual acts against the
order of nature" (both penetrating and receiving) are punished with
up to 5 years of imprisonment (
Ceza Yasası, Art. 171; cf.
Section 171
of the Criminal Code of Cyprus).
Czech Republic
The age
of consent in the Czech
Republic
is
15, as specified by the Czech Penal Code, Section
242, which reads: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a
'child under fifteen (15) years of age or who sexually
abuses such a person by other way shall be sentenced to
imprisonment for at least one and at most eight
years."
Czech Criminal Code (in Czech language)
History
Until 1961, homosexual acts were illegal. The new Penal Code,
introduced in that year, decriminalised homosexual acts but
specified an age of consent for such acts of 18. In 1990, this, and
other discrepancies, were removed and the age of consent was
reduced to 15, in line with heterosexual acts.
Denmark
The age
of consent in The Kingdom
of Denmark
is 15 as specified by Section 222,
which reads: "Any person who has sexual intercourse with any
child 'under the age of fifteen will be liable to
imprisonment for any term not exceeding eight
years."
Danish Criminal Code (in Danish)
History
Male homosexual acts were legalised in Denmark (lesbianism was
never illegal) with an age of consent set at 15, after a major
reform of the Penal Code in 1930; However the age of consent at
that time for
heterosexual acts (which was odd at the time) was
20. In 1976, the age of consent was equalised at 15 for all
acts .
Faroe Islands
The age
of consent in the Faroe
Islands
is 15 §222, which reads;
- "Den, som har samleje med et barn under 15 år, straffes med
fængsel indtil 6 år."
(Translated: "
The person, who has sexual intercourse with a
child 'under the age of 15
, will be punished with up
to six years in jail.")
However it is 18 for those in a position of trust (Eg. teachers)
§223, which reads;
- "Den, som har samleje med en person under 18 år, der er den
skyldiges adoptivbarn, stedbarn eller plejebarn eller er betroet
den pågældende til undervisning eller opdragelse, straffes med
fængsel indtil 4 år."
(
"The person, who has sex with a person below 18 years who is
an adopted child, a stepchild, or a foster-child; or whose teaching
or upbringing they have been trusted with, will be punished with up
to 4 years in jail.")
Estonia
The age
of consent in Estonia
is 14, as specified by Section 145
(Sexual intercourse with a child) which reads: "An adult person
who engages in sexual intercourse with a person of 'less than
14 years of age shall be punished by up to 3 years’
imprisonment."
Estonian Criminal Code
History
Until 1992, male homosexual sex was illegal, the Estonian Penal
Code, Article 118, forbidding "anal intercourse between men".
Due to
regaining independence from USSR
in 1991, the
age of consent for male homosexual intercourse was fixed at 16,
whereas the age for heterosexual intercourse was 14. The age
of consent was equalised in 2001 when the law was amended,
specifying an age of 14 for sexual intercourse.
Finland
The age
of consent in Finland
is 16, as specified by Section
6(1) (Sexual abuse of a child) which reads: "A person who has
sexual intercourse with a 'child younger than sixteen years
of age ... shall be sentenced for sexual abuse of a child
to imprisonment for at most four
years."
Finnish Penal Code
History
Until 1971, homosexual acts were prohibited. After
decriminalisation, the age of consent was set at 18 for homosexual
acts, and 16 for heterosexual acts. In 1998, the age of consent was
equalised to 16 for all sexual acts; although the Finnish
Government had proposed an age of consent of 15, the Parliament
chose an age of consent of 16 instead.
France
The age
of consent in France
is
15, as specified by Article 227-25, which reads:
"The commission without violence, constraint, threat or
surprise of a sexual offence by an adult on the person of a
'child under fifteen years of age is punished by five
years' imprisonment and a fine of
€75,000."
French Penal Code
See also
French petitions
against age of consent laws
History
Male homosexual acts were illegal until 1791, when the ancient
sodomy laws were dropped from the Criminal Code of that year. This
continued to be the case under the Napoleonic Code of 1810. In
1942, the age of consent for homosexual acts was set at 21, while
that for heterosexual acts was 13. The latter was increased to 15
in 1945. In 1978, the age for homosexual acts was lowered to 18. In
1981, it was lowered to 15, in line with that for heterosexual
acts.
Georgia
The age
of consent in Georgia
is 16 as per Georgian Penal Code
Art. 140.
Germany
The age
of consent in Germany
is 14, as long as a
person over the age of 21 does not exploit a 14–15 year-old
person's lack of capacity for sexual self-determination. In
this rare and special case, a conviction on an individual over the
age of 21 requires a complaint from the younger individual; being
over 21 and engaging in sexual relations with a minor of that age
does not constitute an offense in and of itself. Otherwise the age
of consent is
16, although provisions protecting
minors against
coercion apply until the age of 18.
As specified by Sections 176 (Sexual abuse of children) and 182
(Sexual abuse of youths), which read:
§ 176: "
(1) Whoever commits sexual acts on a person 'under
fourteen (14) years of age
(a child) or allows them to be
committed on himself by the child, shall be punished by
imprisonment from six months to ten years
[...]"
§ 182: "
(2) A person over twenty-one years of age who abuses a
person 'under sixteen years of age
, in that he: 1.
commits sexual acts on the person or allows them to be committed on
himself by the person; or 2. induces the person to commit sexual
acts on a third person or to allow them to be committed on the
person by a third person, and thereby exploits the victim's lack of
capacity for sexual self-determination, shall be punished with
imprisonment for not more than three years or a fine.
[..] the act shall only be prosecuted upon
complaint,
unless the prosecuting authority considers ex
officio that it is required to enter the case because of the
special public interest therein. [..] the court
may dispense with punishment pursuant to these provisions if , in
consideration of the conduct of the person against whom the act was
directed, the wrongfulness of the act is
slight."
Relevant paragraph of the German criminal code (in the
version of April 1, 2004; last changed by a law in
2003.)
German Criminal Code (out of date)
German Criminal Code in Spanish (translated by Claudia
López Diaz)
History
The current ages of consent of 14 and 16 in Germany were set
following a
post-reunification
penal law reform in
1994.
While sexual acts
with children under 14 had long been illegal both in West Germany
and the German Democratic Republic
, the penal code in West Germany merely defined
sexual acts with an unblemished girl under the
age of 16 as punishable; in the GDR, by contrast, sexual acts
with persons of the opposite sex
between the
ages of 14 and 16 were punishable if their
moral immaturity was exploited by using gifts, the
promise of benefits or similar methods of persuasion to
initiate intercourse or actions similar to
intercourse.
Homosexuality was illegal in West Germany until
1973 under
§175 of the
country's criminal code; following two penal law reforms in
1969 and 1973, only male homosexual acts were
punished, if they were performed with a minor under the age of 18.
§175 was abolished in 1994 in favor of the above mentioned,
gender-neutral uniform ages of consent. In the GDR, homosexual acts
among both male and female adults over 18 were legalized in
1968; homosexuality was completely legalized in
1988, when § 151 of East Germany's criminal
code was repealed.
Further reading:
Greece
The age
of consent in Greece is
15.
The
general provision for age of consent in Greece is 15 as
specified by Section 339(1) of the Penal Code, which
reads:
- "One who commits an indecent act with a person under
fifteen years of age, or causes this person to commit or undergo
such an act through deception, is punished as follows..."
However,
Article 347 holds a further prohibition of
"seducing" a young male person if the actor is an adult (amongst
other prohibitions regarding positions of authority and acts of
lewdness). In Greek law the
age of
majority is set at 18. This effectively sets the age of consent
for male homosexual activity to 17, with a close in age exception
for those older than 15 and younger than 18.
Further reading:
Hungary
The age
of consent in Hungary
is 14 as specified by Section 201
(Seduction), which reads: "The person who has sexual
intercourse with a person who has not yet completed his 14th year,
as well as the person who has completed his 18th year and engages
in fornication with a person who has not yet exceeded his 14th year
of age, commits a felony and shall be punishable with imprisonment
from 1 to 5 years."
Hungarian Criminal Code (in Hungarian)
History
Until 1961 homosexual acts were illegal. After decriminalisation
the age of consent for homosexual acts was 20 and remained so until
1978. From then until 1999 the age of consent for such acts was 18,
as specified by Section 199. In 2002 the Hungarian Constitutional
Court repealed Section 199 and the age of consent for homosexual
acts was lowered to 14 in line with heterosexual acts.
Iceland
The age
of consent in Iceland
is 15, as specified by Section 202
of the Icelandic Penal Code, which reads: "Anyone who has carnal
intercourse or other sexual intimacy with a child younger than 15
years shall be subject to imprisonment for at least 1 year and up
to 16 years."
202. gr. Hver sem hefur samræði eða önnur kynferðismök við barn,
yngra en 15[fimmtán] ára, skal sæta fangelsi ekki skemur en 1[eitt]
ár og allt að 16[sextán] árum.
Icelandic Penal Code (in Icelandic)
Ireland
The age
of consent in Ireland
is 17 for carnal contact, with
non-carnal contact being allowed at 15, regardless
of sexual orientation and/or gender (although this relies on an
interpretation of what "carnal contact" and "non-carnal contact"
refers to). Sex with a minor over the age of 15 carries a
lower sentence than that for when the minor is below 15, although
the punishments were raised in the
Criminal Law (Sexual
Offences) Act 2006.
History
The heterosexual age of consent was set in the
Criminal Law
Amendment Act 1935. Homosexuality was decriminalised in 1993,
following the ruling of the
European
Court in
Norris v. Ireland with the
Criminal Law (Sexual
Offences) Act 1993. This same act places an age of 15 on acts
of "gross indecency" between male homosexuals, but with no
definition of what these are.
Italy
The age
of consent in Italy
is
14 years, with a close-in-age exception that
allows those aged 13 to engage in sexual activity with partners who
are less than 3 years older. The age of consent rises to 16
if one of the participants has some kind of influence on the other
(e.g. teacher, tutor, biological or adoptive parent). Not knowing
the fact that the victim is underage is not a legal defence. It is
also illegal to perform sexual acts in the presence of a minor with
the intent of allowing the minor to witness the acts, even if they
do not take an active part.
See also related
Wikisource articles from the Italian Criminal Code (in
Italian). See also more related articles from
Interpol website (in French).
Kosovo
The age
of consent in Kosovo
is
14, regardless of sexual orientation and/or
gender.
History
Kosovo legalized male homosexuality in 1970. The age of consent
became equal at
14 in 1991.
Latvia
The age
of consent in Latvia
is
16. Sexual activities that do not involve
vaginal intercourse can occur from age 14 (including same sex
acts). Under some conditions a kind of close in age exception for
those between 14 and 16 exists for vaginal intercourse.
The main legislation is specified by the Latvian Criminal Law,
Section 161 (Sexual Intercourse, Pederasty and Lesbianism with a
Person who has not Attained the Age of Sixteen Years), which
translated reads: "
For a person who commits an act of sexual
intercourse, or pederastic, lesbian or other unnatural sexual acts
of gratification, with a person who has not attained the age of
sixteen years and who is in financial or other dependence on the
offender, or if such offence has been committed by a person who has
attained the age of majority, the applicable sentence is
deprivation of liberty for a term not exceeding four
years."
History
Until 1992, male homosexual acts were illegal under Section 124.1
of the Latvian Criminal Code. This provision was repealed by the
Latvian Parliament in 1992 and the age of consent for male
homosexual acts was set at 18. In 1998, the Latvian Parliament
adopted a new Criminal Code which contained a complex system of
sexual offences: the age of consent for all sexual acts other than
vaginal intercourse was 14; for vaginal intercourse it was 14 if
the other person was under 18, and 16 if the other person was over
18. In 2001, the law was amended to clarify the situation and
confirm that the age of consent was 14 (or 16 if the person was
older than 18) for all acts.
Lithuania
The age
of consent in Lithuania
is 14, as specified by the
Lithuanian Criminal Code §153, according to which any sexual
molestation or sexual relationships with a minor under 14 years are
prohibited. The age of consent (14) is not set directly in
this article of the Lithuanian criminal code, though. It was
established by the Lithuanian case law. This means that both
heterosexual and homosexual acts are allowed once a child has
reached the age of 14. There is an exception to this rule:
§151(1)-2 of the Lithuanian criminal code prohibits parents,
guardians, conservatives or other people who are ex officio
directly responsible for the upgringing and supervision of a child
to have any relationships of sexual kind with the child, if he or
she has not yet reached the age of 18.
Lithuanian Criminal Code = Lietuvos Respublikos
baudžiamasis kodeksas (in Lithuanian)
History
Until 1993, male homosexual acts were prohibited under the
Lithuanian Criminal Code, Article 1221, which was repealed in that
year. The new law set an age of consent of 17 for male oral and
anal intercourse, 16 for other male homosexual acts, and 14 for
lesbian and heterosexual acts. In 2004, the law was amended to
equalise the age of consent at 14 for all sexual acts.
Luxembourg
The age
of consent in Luxembourg
is 16, as specified by the
Luxembourgish Penal Code, Article 372, which reads: "All
indecent assaults on modesty committed without violence or threat,
by a person or by aiding the person, of a child of either sex, aged
less than sixteen, will be punished by imprisonment of one to five
years.
The penalty will be imprisonment of five to ten years if the
child was less than eleven years old."
Luxembourgish Penal Code (in French)
Malta
The age
of consent in Malta is
18. Sexual activity - typically by people
over 18 - with people between 12 and 18 can be considered
defilement of minors by lewd acts or
corruption of a minor,
which, at the discretion of prosecutors and the courts, depending
on the circumstances, may result in a conviction.
Art 201 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta (
Presumption of
violence in cases of carnal knowledge and indecent assault)
states:
- 201. Unlawful carnal
knowledge and any other indecent
assault, shall be presumed to be accompanied with violence
-
(a) when it is committed on any person under twelve years of
age;
(b) when the person abused was unable to offer resistance owing to
physical or mental infirmity, or for any other cause independent of
the act of the offender, or in consequence of any fraudulent device
used by the offender.
The punishment is imprisonment from three to nine years, with or
without solitary confinement, as described in Art. 198 (
Rape or
carnal knowledge with violence). The punishment can be
increased in certain cases described in Art. 202, such as when the
person has not attained the age of nine years.
Art. 203 of Chapter 9 of the Laws of Malta (
Defilement of
minors) reads:
- 203. (1) Whosoever, by lewd
acts, defiles a minor of either sex, shall, on conviction, be
liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, with
or without solitary confinement: [...]
A number of aggravating circumstances exist to this blanket
provision including: Abuse of parental authority or tutorship,
where the victim is under the age of 12 and if the offence is
committed by means of threats or deceit. There is no definition of
how old the offender must be: Even another minor can be guilty of
this crime, although there is no evidence that any such case has
ever been prosecuted.
The age of majority is defined in Art 188 of Chapter 16 of the
Civil Laws of Malta:
- 188. (1) Majority is fixed at the completion of
the eighteenth year of age.
To apply Art. 203, there are requirements:
- For the completed offence and apart from the formal element
of the offence, there must be the lewd act (atto di libidine) and
the actual defilement. The lewd act may be committed
either on the person or in the presence of the minor. All
acts which, either by their very nature or of the circumstances in
which they are performed, either are directed to the indulgence of
the sexual appetite, either of the agent or of the victim, and are
capable of arousing sexual interest of the victim, are lewd acts
for the purposes of the offence in question.
It is not necessary to have sexual intercourse or even sex to be
prosecuted and convicted under this article; even a kiss has been
deemed by the Maltese criminal courts as amounting to a ‘lewd act’,
or sending SMS messages with sexual connotations.
The term "defile" must be put in context. In example: If a person
is sexually mature (even if minor) then he/she cannot be defiled.
In 2008 two brothers, aged 19 and 20, were found not guilty of
defiling a girl, then aged 16. Their sexual encounters were
consensual, and it was clear that the girl had had several previous
sexual adventures with several youths. In 2007 a man of 30 was
found guilty of defiling a boy, then aged 14. He had set up a
situation in which the boy came to his apartment; as a result of
both childish curiosity and what the court deemed to be the guile
of the adult man, the boy remained in the apartment even while man
first showered and then committed the lewd acts. There are also
other cases, where offenders have been found guilty even though the
circumstances were not clear, such as the case of a hotel manager
aged 35 with a 14 year old girl on holiday, three boys aged 18, 19
and 20 with three 14-year-old girls or another hotel manager of 46
and a boy of 14, who had encounters over a longer time.
In the wording of the law there is no discrimination on the basis
of sexual orientation. However, discrimination can result from
selective enforcement with regard to individual cases. "This may
therefore lead to a higher incidence of cases in which the minor
and the perpetrator are of the same sex, given that there may be
parents who would not resort to legal proceedings should their
17-year old child have sexual relations with another person of the
opposite sex but would do so if the person is of the same
sex."
Marriage is allowed as early as the age of 16, which would, in
theory, allow a case to arise in which a wife (or husband) they
press charges under this article. In practice, this problem has
never arisen.
The concept of age-banding employed in for example Canada is not
present in the Maltese legal system and sexual activity between one
partner who is 17 years old and another who is 18 years old can
constitute defilement of minors, depending on the circumstances,
with no exception being allowed purely on the basis of the
proximity of their ages.
Moldova
The age of consent for sexual activity is not directly foreseen in
the Moldovan legislation, but varies between
14
and
16 years according to the Penal Code.
Netherlands
The age
of consent in the Netherlands
is 16, as specified by the Dutch
Criminal Code, Articles 245 and 247, which read: (Art 245) "A
person who, out of wedlock, with a person who has reached the age
of twelve but has not reached sixteen, performs indecent acts
comprising or including sexual penetration of the body is liable to
a term of imprisonment of not more than eight years or a fine of
the fifth category."; and (Art 247) "A person who, with a
person whom he knows to be unconscious or physically unable to
resist or to be suffering from such a degree of mental defect or
mental disease that he is incapable or not sufficiently capable of
exercising or expressing his will in the matter or of offering
resistance, performs indecent acts, or who, with a person who has
not yet reached the age of sixteen (16) years, out of wedlock,
performs indecent acts, or by whom the latter is enticed into
performing, or submitting to such acts, out of wedlock, with a
third party, is liable to a term of imprisonment of not more than
six years or a fine of the fourth category."
Article 245,
Article 247 (in Dutch)
Norway
The age
of consent in Norway
is
16, as specified by the Norwegian General Civil
Code §196 which reads: "Any person who commits or is accessory
to another person's committing an act of indecency with any person
who is under 16 years of age shall be liable to imprisonment for a
term not exceeding five years." Aggravating
circumstances such as recidivism, multiple perpetrators, and
unusual degree of degradation and pain, or physical harm may raise
the maximum penalty to 15 years.
The sexual act may not be punishable if those involved are of a
"similar age or development".
Norwegian General Civil Code (in
Norwegian)
Poland
The age
of consent in Poland
is
15, as specified by the Polish Criminal Code,
Article 200, which reads:
"
Article 200. § 1. Whoever subjects a minor
under 15 years of age to sexual intercourse or makes him/her submit
to another sexual act or to perform such an act shall be subject to
the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 2
and 12 years."
"
§ 2. The same punishment shall be imposed on anyone,
who records pornographic material with the participation of such a
person."
Polish Criminal Code (in Polish)
History
Poland never imposed laws against homosexuality. However, in 1876
homosexuality was criminalised by the laws of occupying countries
(see
Partitions of Poland). In
1932 the first Polish Criminal Code after regaining independence
was introduced, making the age of consent of 15 for all sexual
acts, regardless of
sexual
orientation.
Portugal
Since
September 2007, the age of consent laws of Portugal
states 14, regardless of sexual
behaviour, gender and/or sexual orientation, as a result of the
constitutional court of Portugal ruling on constitutional protection that explicitly
includes "sexual orientation",
formally into the Constitution of Portugal back in 2004. Since September 2007, the age
of consent was formally equalised as part of the Penal Code of
September 2007. Also in Portugal it is illegal to perform a sexual
act with a minor between 14 and 16 years old "by taking advantage
of their inexperience"
[286518].
History
Homosexual acts were legalised for the first time in Portugal in
1852, with an equal age of consent at that time - although
homosexuality was again re-criminalised in 1912. They were
decriminalised a second time in 1945 and an age of consent was set
at 16, in line with heterosexual activities. In 1995, a new Penal
Code was introduced with "different circumstances" for different
sexual behaviours. Since September 2007 the age of consent
regardless of sexual behaviour, gender and/or sexual orientation is
14 .
See also: LGBT
rights in Portugal
Romania
The age
of consent in Romania
is 15, as specified by the
Romanian Criminal Code, Article 218 (Sexual intercourse with a
minor), which reads: "Sexual intercourse, of any nature, with a
person of the other sex or of the same sex, who has not reached the
age of 15, shall be punished by strict imprisonment from 3 to 10
years and the prohibition of certain rights."
Having sex with a minor over the age of 15 until the age of 18 is
statutory rape if the sexual act is done by two categories:I. The
person abused his or her authority or influence over the victim or
the victim's trust.II. The person is the tutor, curator,
supervisor, providing care, medication or education and using that
capacity over the victim to gain consent.
Romanian Criminal Code
Russia
The age
of consent in Russia
is
16. The age of consent changed several times in
the Russian history: the Criminal Code of RSFSR contained a very unclear clause about
puberty (which was medically hard to determine for every
individual, so usually the full legal age of 18 years applied de
facto); when the Criminal
Code of Russia was adopted in 1996,
the age of consent was proclaimed to be the same regardless of
sexual orientation and was set to
16 years old; [286519] in 1998 it was
lowered to 14 years; [286520] and in 2003 it was
returned again to 16 years [286521] (which is the current age of
consent in Russia).
Article 134. Illicit
Sexual Relations or Other Sexual Actions with a Person Who Has Not
Reached 16 Years of Age [286522]
Illicit sexual relations, pederasty, or lesbianism, committed
by a person who has reached 18 years of age with a person who
obviously 'has not reached 16 years of
age
,shall be punishable by restraint of
liberty for a term of up to three years or by deprivation of
liberty for a term of up to four years.
Article 135. Depraved
Actions [286523]
Commission of depraved actions without the use of violence by
the person who has reached the age of 18 years in relations to a
person who obviously 'has not reached 16 years of
age
,shall be punishable by a fine in the
amount up to 300 thousand roubles, or in the amount of the wage or
salary, or any other income of the convicted person for a period up
to two years, or by restraint of liberty for a term of up to two
years, or by deprivation of liberty for a term of up to three
years.
However, only a person over 18 can be charged. Charges are
relatively low (up to 4 years of prison), regardless of sexual
orientation and/or gender and "obscene actions" (with even less
charges).
{Art 134 and 135} It should be noted that if
the victim is proved not to understand the nature and consequences
of the act (due to their age or mental abilities), it will be
considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 10 years of
prison, or up to 15 if the victim is under 14).
{Art 131 and 132}. If two persons are married
and one of them is between 14 and 16 (14 is the lowest possible age
of marriage) and the other is over 18, the sexual intercourse
between them is not a crime; but the elder person can still be
charged for sexual acts committed before marriage.
Further reading:
Serbia
The age
of consent in Serbia
is
14, regardless of sexual orientation and/or
gender. This is regulated by Chapter 18 (Sexual Offences) of
the
Penal Code of the Republic of Serbia
and especially Articel 180 (prohibiting sexual intercourse with a
child). Articel 112 defines a child as a person under 14 years of
age.Articel 190 furthermore forbids cohabitation or marriage with a
minor (person under 18).
Serbian Criminal Code in English (tranlated by
the OSCE mission to Serbia in February 2006)
History
From 1977 to 1994, sexual acts between men of any age was a
criminal offence in Serbia, although the law has never been
applied. Then in 1994, the age of consent was 18 just for anal sex
between males;
any male performing anal sexual conduct with
another male, is punishable by up to 1 year in prison, 14 for
all other sexual conduct. Since 2006, an equal age of consent came
into force, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender - This
is regulated by the section 110 of the Penal Code of the Republic
of Serbia stating that "lewd acts" between a male adult and a male
under the age of 14 is punishable by imprisonment from 1 to 8
years. There is no specific reference to "lewd acts" between two
females of the same offence.
The
province of Vojvodina
, a northern province of Serbia, had decriminalized
homosexuality in 1978, thus
effectively making an equal age of consent for any sexual practice
regardless of sex and/or gender. This lasted until Vojvodina
lost its law-making power in 1990.
See also:
LGBT rights in
Serbia.
Slovakia
The age
of consent in Slovakia
is 15, as specified by the Slovak
Criminal Code, Section 201.
History
Until 1961, homosexual acts were prohibited, however the new
Criminal Code of that year decriminalised such behaviour. However,
under Paragraph 244, the age of consent for homosexual acts was set
at 18, whereas it remained 15 for heterosexual acts. In 1990, the
Penal Code was amended to treat hetero- and homosexual acts
equally; Paragraph 244 was repealed and the age of consent became
15 for all.
Slovenia
The age
of consent in Slovenia
is 15, as specified by the
Slovenian Penal Code, Article 183, Section 1, which reads: "(1)
Whoever has sexual intercourse or performs any lewd act with a
person of the same or opposite sex under the age of fifteen (15)
years where there is a marked discrepancy between the maturity of
the perpetrator and that of the victim shall be sentenced to
imprisonment for not less than six (6) months and not more than
five (5) years."
Slovenian Penal Code
History
Until 1959, male homosexual acts were prohibited, as was the case
in all of former Yugoslavia. A new Penal Code was introduced in
1977 which decriminalised homosexual acts and all discriminatory
provisions were removed. In 1995, the age of consent was set at 14
for all acts. In 1999, the code was amended to raise the age of
consent to 15 years and added the condition for "
a marked
discrepancy between the maturity of the perpetrator and that of the
victim'".
Spain
The age
of consent in Spain is
13, as specified by the Spanish Penal Code,
Article 181(2). However, if deceit is
used in gaining the consent of a minor under 16 years an individual
can be charged under
Article 183(1) upon parental complaint.
- "181(1) El que, interviniendo engaño, cometiere abuso
sexual con persona mayor de trece años y menor de dieciséis, será
castigado con la pena de prisión de uno a dos años, o multa de doce
a veinticuatro meses.
- :(Approximate translation: An individual who, by use of
deceit, commits sexual abuse with a person over thirteen years and
under sixteen years, will be punished with imprisonment for one or
two years, or a fine equivalent to twelve to twenty-four
months...)
- (2) A los efectos del apartado anterior, se consideran
abusos sexuales no consentidos los que se ejecuten sobre menores de
trece años, sobre personas que se hallen privadas de sentido o de
cuyo trastorno mental se abusare."
- :(Approximate translation: To the effects of the previous
section, it is considered unconsenting sexual abuse those that are
committed against persons under thirteen years, unconscious persons
or persons whose mental illness is taken advantage
of....)"
History
Homosexual acts had been legal in Spain from 1822 to 1933, (with
the exception of the offence of “habitual homosexual acts" in the
years 1928-32) and even not specifically mentioned there, some
homosexuals were arrested under the "Ley de Vagos y Maleantes" (Law
against the Lazy and common deliquents) during the 2nd Spanish
republic. Homosexual acts were illegal during
Francisco Franco's regime, which created a
specific law against them (Ley de Peligrosidad Social). A new
Criminal Code was introduced in 1995 which specified an age of
consent of 12 under Article 181f for all sexual acts; and this was
raised to 13 in 1999.
Further reading:
Sweden
The age
of consent in Sweden
is
15, as specified by the Swedish Penal Code,
Chapter 6 (On Sexual Crimes). The age of fifteen is referred
to several times, for example in Section 4, which reads: "
A
person who has sexual intercourse with a child under fifteen years
of age or who with such a child carries out another sexual act
that, having regard to the nature of the violation and the
circumstances in general, is comparable to sexual intercourse,
shall be sentenced for rape of a child to imprisonment for at least
two and at most six years."
There is a
position of trust rule in which the age of
consent is raised to 18. The section mentioned above
continues:"
The same applies to the person who carries out an
act referred to in the first paragraph to a child more than fifteen
years of age but less than eighteen years of age and who is
offspring to the perpetrator or in the perpetrator's care or in a
similar relationship to the perpetrator, or for whose care or
guardianship the perpetrator is responsible due to the decision of
a government agency."
There is also a
close in age exception (Chapter 6, Section
14) "
...not sentenced if it is obvious that the act is no
violation of the child considered the small difference in age
between the person who carries out the act and the child and other
circumstances." In a verdict of March 30, 2007, the
Supreme Court found that a 17 year
old boy had not committed a criminal act by having sexual
intercourse with a girl 14 years and 7 months old. (Case B
415-07)
Swedish Criminal Code
History
Homosexual acts between men were prohibited in Sweden since 1864,
then in 1944 homosexual acts between men became legal - but with a
higher age of consent of 20 than for heterosexual/lesbian acts
which was always set at 15. The age of consent for gay men got
lowered again in 1966 to 18 (still 15 for lesbians and
heterosexuals). Then the age of consent was finally equalized to 15
regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender in 1978.
Switzerland
The age
of consent in Switzerland
is 16, as specified by the Swiss
Federal Criminal Code, Article 187(1). However, there exists
a close in age exception if the difference between the ages of the
participants is three years or less {Art 187(2)}.
Turkey
The age
of consent in Turkey is the age
of majority (set at 18 ), as specified by the 2004
Turkish Penal Code (Türk Ceza Kanunu, Art. 103
& 104). The breach is punishable from 6 months to 22.5 years of
imprisonment depending on the age of the minor, age of the
perpetrator and whether the perpetrator is a parent, guardian,
caregiver or tutor. The legislation applies to all, regardless of
sexual orientation and/or gender.
History
The former Turkish Penal Code of 1927 punished having sex with a
minor as
statutory rape.
Ukraine
The age
of consent in Ukraine
is considered to be 16, although
it is not specifically set in any one statute.
Article 155 states that sexual intercourse with a sexually immature
person shall be punishable. Immaturity is irrefutably presumed in
those under 14 {Art. 120CC and court rulings}. Those under 14 are
considered children in Ukrainian law, additionally those under 16
are considered minors (generally read from all articles and court
rulings).
However, sexual acts with those under 16 that are considered
debauchery can also be prosecuted under Article 156.
Article 155 – Sexual intercourse with a
sexually immature person
1. Sexual intercourse with a 'sexually immature
person
, –shall be punishable by restraint of
liberty for a term up to three years or imprisonment for the same
term.2. The same actions committed by a parent or
surrogate parent, or where they caused sterility or other grave
consequences, –shall be punishable by imprisonment for a
term of three to five years.[286524]
Article 156 – Debauchery of minors
1. Debauched actions committed in regard of a
'person under 16 years of age,
– shall be
punishable by arrest for a term up to six months, or restraint of
liberty for a term up to three years.2.
The same actions committed in regard of a young child, or by a
parent or surrogate parent, – shall be punishable by restraint of
liberty for a term up to five years, or imprisonment for a term up
to three years. [286525]
Ukrainian Criminal Code
United Kingdom (and dependencies)
The
United
Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country
and sovereign state consisting of the jurisdictions of England and
Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. UK national age of
consent legislation does not apply to its dependencies.
England and Wales
The age of consent in
England and
Wales is
16, as specified by the
Sexual Offences Act 2003 {§44(1)}. However it is illegal for a person to engage
in sexual activity with an individual under the age of 18 if they
are in a position of trust in relation to that individual (teacher,
warder, care giver, guardian, etc).
{§44(3),(4)}
Further reading:
History
The age of consent for heterosexual acts in England was set at 12
in 1275. It was lowered to 10 in the latter part of the 16th
century. The wording was along the lines of "It shall be deemed
illegal to ravage a maiden who is not of age" - at the time "of
age" being 12. Therefore, there was, and is, technically no age of
consent for the male participant - unless the female participant is
an adult in which case laws pertaining to sex with a minor and so
on come into force. The English law became applicable in Wales
following the Acts of Union (1536 and 1543). In
medieval Welsh law there was no actual equivalent
of the concept of the age of consent as such, but a girl was
marriagable at 12-14 (the onset of puberty) and a fine was payable
for the taking of a girl's maidenhood by force; the rules varied
according to status and may not have been applied rigidly to
commoners.
A concern that young girls were being sold into brothels led
Parliament to raise the age of consent to 13 in 1875 under the
Offences against
the Person Act 1875. After
W.
T. Stead's
Maiden
Tribute articles, the
Criminal Law Amendment Act
1885 raised the age of consent to 16.
Male-male homosexual activity had been illegal since the
Buggery Act 1533 and this was reinforced in
the
Offences
against the Person Act 1861 and the
Criminal Law Amendment Act
1885 extended buggery laws to include any kind of sexual
activity between males.
It is common folklore that an amendment that would have
criminalised lesbian acts was rejected by Queen Victoria because
she refused to believe that some women did such things; but it is
likelier that those presenting the amendment excluded it (as did
the House of
Lords
40 years later) on the assumption that it would
give women ideas.
Male homosexual acts were decriminalised under the
Sexual Offences Act 1967, Section
1, although the age of consent for such acts was set at 21, whereas
the age of consent for heterosexual acts was 16. However, the
legislation applied only in England and Wales.
In 1994,
on the second reading of the Criminal Justice and
Public Order Act 1994, the Conservative Member of
Parliament
Edwina Currie
introduced an amendment to lower the age of consent for homosexual
acts to 16, in line with that for heterosexual acts; the amendment
was defeated by 308 votes to 280. A compromise amendment
that lowered the age of consent to 18 was accepted by 427 votes to
162. Also during the readings were motions to equalise the age of
consent to 17 for all, to maintain the age of consent for
homosexual acts to 21, and a further attempt to lower the age of
consent to 16, all of which were rejected.
In 1997, the European Court of Human Rights case of
Sutherland v
the United Kingdom held that a
higher age of consent for homosexuals than for heterosexuals was a
breach of Article 14 in conjunction with Article 8 of the
Convention. In response, the Government introduced the Crime and
Disorder Bill which contained a provision lowering the age of
consent for homosexual acts to 16. Though accepted by the House of
Commons, the provision was rejected by the House of Lords. The
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill, introduced in 1998, contained a
similar provision, but once again it was rejected by the House of
Lords. The Bill was reintroduced in 2000 and, despite opposition
from the House of Lords, was passed under the
Parliament Act 1911 (which allows the
House of Commons to overrule the House of Lords under certain
circumstances). As the Scottish Parliament had been established
prior to the reintroduction of the Bill, and the relevant
legislation was a devolved issue, the consent of that Parliament
under the
Sewel
Convention was required – had that consent not been granted,
the Scottish provisions would have had to be removed and it would
not have been possible to use the Parliament Act. The
Sexual Offences Act
2000 thus equalised the age of consent at
16
for all sexual acts (including, for the first time, lesbian
acts).
Scotland
The age
of consent in Scotland
is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, as specified by the new Sexual
Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 [286526] [286527].
History
Male homosexual acts were illegal in Scotland until 1980 when they
were decriminalised by the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980,
Section 80, which specified an age of consent of 21. The Criminal
Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 lowered the age of consent
of 18 and this was further lowered to 16 by the Sexual Offences
(Amendment) Act 2000 described above. However male rape was not
recognised along with a complete range of sexual offences until
2009 under the new
Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act
2009 [286528] [286529].
Northern Ireland
The age
of consent in Northern
Ireland
is 16, regardless of sexual
orientation and/or gender, as specified by the Sexual Offences
(Northern Ireland) Order 2008. The reason the age of consent
was lowered to 16 in 2008 with the
Order was to
bring it in line with the rest of the UK.
History
Male homosexual acts were illegal in Northern Ireland until 1982,
when they were decriminalised by the Homosexual Offences (Northern
Ireland) Order 1982, which specified an age of consent of 21. The
change was a result of the judgement in the European Court of Human
Rights case of
Dudgeon v United
Kingdom in which the ECHR held that a prohibition on
homosexual acts was a breach of Article 8 of the Convention. The
age of consent was lowered to 17 for male homosexual acts – putting
the age of consent in line with heterosexual acts, by the
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000, Section 1.
Then in 2008 all sexual offences under an
Order
were lowered to 16, so it was in line with the rest of the
UK.
Gibraltar
In
Gibraltar, a British
overseas territory, the age of consent is 16
for heterosexual and female homosexual acts, while the age of
consent for male homosexual acts is maintained at
18.
History
Male
homosexual acts have been decriminalised in Gibraltar since 1993, where the above conditions were
set. An equal age of consent of 16 for all may be coming
soon
[286530] [286531] [286532].
Current developments
The
"equal" or "uniform" age of consent legislation in Gibraltar is awaiting a "requête". In the past four
years very fierce debates have been held in Gibraltar regarding a "uniform" age of consent of 16, even
from the Council of Europe and
Gordon Brown in the UK
supporting
an equal age of consent for all regardless at 16 in all UK
Territories. In February 2008, a proposed law will be introduced into the
Gibraltar
Parliament
to equalize the age of consent to 16 for everyone
regardless. Since 2003, a "requête" called the
Sexual
Offences (Equal Age Of Consent) Bill 2009 was introduced and
has always failed to pass or get an approval, in 2008 it maybe
likely to be passed by the middle or the end of the year. Currently
under all these; Intervention by the Prime Minister of the UK,
constitutional mandates, court cases, treaties with the EU, the
Council of Europe, law(s) or legislation under investigation,
intervening, reviewing, accessing and maybe getting equalised very
soon.
[286533] [286534] [286535] [286536].
Further reading
Guernsey (Including Alderney, Herm and Sark)
The age
of consent in the Bailiwick of Guernsey (a Crown Dependency including Alderney
, Herm
and
Sark
) is 16 for heterosexual and female
homosexual acts , while the current age of consent for male
homosexual acts is maintained at 18. This
could soon change by the middle of 2008 (See
Further
reading below)
History
In 1983, male homosexual acts were decriminalised with the age of
consent set at 21. In 1999 the age of consent for male homosexual
acts was lowered to 18
[286537]. By the middle of 2008, this could
soon be changed for to be equalized at 16. For more information
below see:
Current developments
The
"equal" or "uniform" age of consent legislation in the Bailiwick of Guernsey (Including Alderney, Herm and
Sark) is awaiting a "requête". Since 2005, on-going
debates have been held in the House of Guernsey regarding a
"uniform" age of consent. Over the past two years, a
proposed law to equalize the age of
consent to 16 for everyone, regardless was introduced as a
"requête" - This law maybe likely to be approved by the middle of
2008.
Further reading
Isle of Man
The age
of consent in the Isle of
Man
, a Crown Dependency, is 16, last
amended in September 1, 2006 [286538].
History
Prior to September 1992, sodomy was illegal, then in October 1992
(after assent) the age of consent was set at 21 for sodomy (in line
with the UK at that time), then in 1997, the age of consent for
male homosexual acts was lowered to 18. In 2006, the age of consent
was lowered to
16, became gender-neutral for all
sexual conduct, regardless of
sexual
orientation and/or gender.
See also:
Jersey
The age
of consent in the Bailiwick of Jersey
, a Crown
Dependency, is 16, last amended in
2007.
History
Prior to 1990, sodomie (sodomy) was illegal in Jersey for both men
and women until 1990 although the age of consent for homosexual
acts other than sodomy was the same as for heterosexual acts. In
1990 the age of consent for sodomy between consenting males was set
at 21 (the UK at that time maintained the age of consent of 21 for
all homosexual acts between males)
[286539]. In 1995, the sodomie AoC became 18
(under the Sexual Offences (Jersey) Law 1995). In 2007, the age of
consent was lowered to
16, became gender-neutral
for all sexual conduct (including sodomie); regardless of
sexual orientation and/or
gender.
Further reading
Vatican State
There is an equal age of consent set at
12 years
of age in
Art. 331 (1) . When there is a
relationship of dependence (like teacher/student, etc.) the age of
consent is 15 years in
Art. 331 (2)
The criminal law was introduced 1929 and was the same law as the
Codice Penale in Italy on 8 June 1929. Because of the
death penalty, reintroduced in 1926 in Italy, the reference point
was changed in 1969 to 31 December 1924, but this has no effect on
the age of consent laws. The age of consent in the Codice Penale
from Italy was changed in 1930, but this no longer had any effect
on Vatican City. Vatican law provides that criminal suspects
arrested in Vatican City are to be tried under Vatican law in
Italian courts, while those who escape to Italy before their arrest
are to be tried under Italian law, even if their alleged crime
occurred on Vatican territory.
Further reading
Worldwide age of consent
References
- [1]
-
http://www.ihf-hr.org/viewbinary/viewdocument.php?doc_id=2059
- "...il colpevole non può invocare, a propria scusa, l`ignoranza
dell`età della persona offesa", which translates to "the accused
may not invoke ignorance of the victim's age".
- CRIMINAL CODE CHAPTER 9, 10th June, 1854 - last
amended III of 2004, legislationline.org
- CHAPTER 16 CIVIL CODE, docs.justice.gov.mt
- IL-PULIZIJA SPETTUR LOUISE CALLEJA VS. GIUSEPPE
ZAMMIT, Numru 568/2005, 2008-09-28, QORTI TAL-MAGISTRATI
(MALTA) BHALA QORTI TA' GUDIKATURA KRIMINALI (Court of magistrates
(Malta) as a court of criminal judicature),
docs.justice.gov.mt
- Police vs. Spiru Silvio, judgment of the Court of Criminal
Appeal (Inferior) of 12 March 1960
- Ex-religion teacher confesses to defilement via
SMS, timesofmalta.com.mt, 2008-04-23
- Brothers acquitted of defiling girl,
timesofmalta.com, 2008-04-28
- POLICE INSPECTOR TEREZA SCIBERRAS, INSPECTOR
RAYMOND AQUILINA VS. SEBASTIAN FRANCIS De BONO, ZACHARY De BONO,
Number 914/2004, 2008-04-23, COURT OF MAGISTRATES (MALTA) AS A
COURT OF CRIMINAL JUDICATURE, docs.justice.gov.mt
- The Police v. Arshad Nawaz, Criminal Appeal Number.
170/2007, 2007-06-11, MALTA - COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEAL,
docs.justice.gov.mt
- Man accused of defilement, timesofmalta.com.mt,
2008-09-02
- Three admit indecent acts, timesofmalta.com.mt,
2008-08-27
- Hotel manager charged with defiling boy, 14,
timesofmalta.com.mt, 2008-08-22
- Christian Attard: Summary of legislation implementing "Directive
2000/78/EC establishing a general framework for equal treatment in
employment and occupation" with respect to sexual orientation in
Malta, 2005, law.leiden.edu
- Part 2 of the unofficial English translation of the
Polish Criminal Code.
- [2]
- Dafydd Jenkins and Morfydd E. Owen (eds.), The Welsh Law of
Women (University of Wales Press, 1980), pp. 48, 71, et
seq..
- House of Commons Research Paper 99/4 21 January 1999: The
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Bill: ‘Age of consent’ and abuse of a
position of trust (Bill 10 of 1998-99) [3]
- OPSI
- Sexual Offences (Jersey) Law 2007
- Loi (1938) modifiant le droit criminel (sodomie et
bestialité)
- Helmut
Graupner: Sexualität, Jugendschutz und Menschenrechte -
Band 2, Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt - Berlin - Bern - New
York - Paris - Wien 1997, ISBN 3-631-31790-5, Vatican State: pages
700ff
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