Total recorded alcohol per capita
consumption (15+), in litres of pure alcohol.
Alcohol is associated with an increased risk of a number of
cancers. 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths
worldwide are attributable to alcohol drinking.
Breast cancer in women is linked with alcohol
intake. Alcohol also increases the risk of cancers of the mouth,
esophagus, pharynx and larynx,
colorectal cancer,
liver cancer, stomach and
ovaries.
Overall mortality from alcohol-related cancers
Australia: A 2009 study found that 2,100
Australians die from alcohol-related cancer each year.
Alcohol as a carcinogen and cocarcinogen
The
International Agency
for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur
le Cancer) of the
World Health
Organization has classified alcohol as a
Group 1 carcinogen. Its
evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the
carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans. …Alcoholic
beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."
Possible mechanisms of alcohol as a carcinogen
Acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde is produced by the liver
as it breaks down ethanol. The liver then normally eliminates 99%
of the acetaldehyde. An average liver can process 7 grams of
ethanol per hour. For example, it takes 12 hours to eliminate the
ethanol in a bottle of wine, giving 12 hours or more of
acetaldehyde exposure.A study of 818 heavy drinkers found that
those who are exposed to more acetaldehyde than normal through a
defect in the gene for
alcohol
dehydrogenase are at greater risk of developing cancers of the
upper gastrointestinal tract and liver.
Reviews
In a review, Pöschl and Seitz list some possible mechanisms of
alcohol as a carcinogen:
- local effects of alcohol
- metabolism to acetaldehyde (which
may be mutagenic at physiologically meaningful levels)
- induction of CYP2E1
- nutritional deficiencies
- interactions with retinoids
- alcohol and methylation
- alcohol and immune surveillance
Purohita
et al. propose an overlapping list:
- production of acetaldehyde, which
is a weak mutagen and carcinogen
- induction of cytochrome P450 2E1 and
associated oxidative stress and conversion of procarcinogens to
carcinogens
- depletion of S-adenosylmethionine and,
consequently, induction of global DNA hypomethylation;
- induction of increased production of inhibitory guanine
nucleotide regulatory proteins and components of extracellular
signal-regulated kinase–mitogen-activated protein kinase
signaling
- accumulation of iron and associated oxidative stress
- inactivation of the tumor suppressor gene BRCA1 and increased estrogen responsiveness (primarily
in breast)
- impairment of retinoic acid metabolism.
Boffetta and Hashibe list plausible mechanisms as including:
- a genotoxic effect of acetaldehyde
- increased oestrogen concentration
- a role as solvent for tobacco carcinogens
- production of reactive oxygen species and nitrogen species
- changes in folate metabolism
Individuals who both smoke and drink are at a much higher risk of
developing mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer. Research has
shown their risk of developing these cancers is 35 times higher
than in individuals who neither smoke nor drink. This evidence may
suggest that there is a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol
and tobacco-related carcinogens.
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition
A study found that found that alcohol stimulates the
epithelial-mesenchymal
transition (EMT), in which ordinary cancer cells change into a
more aggressive form and begin to spread throughout the body.
Effect of alcohol on the progress of cancer when
established
A study of the influence of alcohol intake on tumor growth of
hepatocellular carcinoma
(HCC) in patients with type C
cirrhosis,
found that alcohol influenced tumor volume doubling time
(TVDT).
A study of chick embryos suggests that alcohol stimulates their
tumor growth by fueling the production of a growth factor that
stimulates blood vessel development in tumors. A 2006 study in mice
showed moderate drinking resulted in larger and stronger tumors via
a process known as
angiogenesis.
A study where high amounts of alcohol were given to mice suggests
that it accelerates their cancer growth by speeding up the loss of
body fat and depressing immune activity.
Genetic variation and cancer risk
A study found that "the
ADH1C*1 allele and
genotype ADH1C*1/1 were significantly more frequent in patients
with alcohol-related cancers…" A European study has found two gene
variants which offer "significant" protection against mouth and
throat cancers. Alcohol is a known porphyrinogenic chemical.
Several European studies have linked the inherited hepatic
porphyrias with a predisposition to
hepatocellular carcinoma. Typical risk factors for HCC need not be
present with the acute hepatic porphyrias, specifically acute
intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria and hereditary
coproporphyria.
Porphyria
cutanea tarda is also associated with HCC, but with typical
risk factors including evidence of hepatotropic viruses,
hemochromatosis and alcoholic cirrhosis. Tyrosinemia Type I, an
inherited disorder in tyrosine metabolism impacting the second
enzyme in the heme metabolic pathway is associated with a high risk
of developing HCC in younger populations, including children.
Alcohol as a risk factor for specific cancers
Moderate alcohol consumption increases risk
A study of 1,280,296 middle-aged women in the United Kingdom found
that, "Increasing but moderate alcohol consumption in women was
determined to be associated with an increased risk of cancers of
the oral cavity and pharynx, esophagus, larynx, rectum, breast, and
liver…"
Cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, and larynx
Alcohol is a risk factor for cancers of the
mouth,
esophagus,
pharynx
and
larynx. The U.S.
National Cancer Institute states
"Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth,
esophagus, pharynx, larynx, and liver in men and women, … In
general, these risks increase after about one daily drink for women
and two daily drinks for men. (A drink is defined as 12 ounces of
regular beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of 80-proof liquor.)
… Also, using alcohol with tobacco is riskier than using either one
alone, because it further increases the chances of getting cancers
of the mouth, throat, and esophagus."
The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE)
Consortium co-ordinated a meta-study on the issue. A study looking
at laryngeal cancer and beverage type concluded, "This study thus
indicates that in the Italian population characterized by frequent
wine consumption, wine is the beverage most strongly related to the
risk of laryngeal cancer."
A review of the epidemiological literature published from 1966 to
2006 concluded that:
- The risk of esophageal cancer nearly doubled in the first two
years following alcohol cessation, a sharp increase that may be due
to the fact that some people only stop drinking when they are
already experiencing disease symptoms. However, risk then decreased
rapidly and significantly after longer periods of abstention.
- Risk of head and neck cancer only reduced significantly after
10 years of cessation.
- After more than 20 years of alcohol cessation, the risks for
both cancers were similar to those seen in people who never drank
alcohol.
A study of more than 1,280,000 middle-aged British women concluded
that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the
incidence of oral cavity and pharynx cancers increases by 1 per
1000. The incidence of cancers of the esophagus and larynx increase
by 0.7 per 1000.
A 2008 study suggests that acetaldehyde (a break-down product of
alcohol) is implicated in oral cancer.
Breast cancer
Alcohol is a risk factor for breast cancer in women.
A woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has 8%
higher of developing breast cancer than a woman who drinks an
average of one unit of alcohol per day. A study of more than
1,280,000 middle-aged British women concluded that for every
additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of
breast cancer increases by 11 per 1000. Approximately 6% (between
3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could
be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less
than 1 unit/week).
Colorectal cancer
Drinking may be a cause of earlier onset of colorectal cancer. The
evidence that alcohol is a cause of bowel cancer is convincing in
men and probable in women.
The National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute,
Cancer Research, the American Cancer Society, the Mayo Clinic, and
the Colorectal Cancer Coalition, American Society of Clinical
Oncology and the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center list
alcohol as a risk factor.
A WCRF panel report finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic
drinks increase the risk of colorectal cancer in men at consumption
levels above 30 grams of absolute alcohol daily. The
National Cancer Institute states,
"Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal
cancer"
One study found that "While there was a more than twofold increased
risk of significant colorectal neoplasia in people who drink
spirits and beer, people who drank wine had a lower risk. In our
sample, people who drank more than eight servings of beer or
spirits per week had at least a one in five chance of having
significant colorectal neoplasia detected by screening
colonoscopy.".
The EPIC study suggests that "people who drink 15 grams of alcohol
a day– equivalent to about two units– have about a 10 percent
increased risk of bowel cancer. Those who drank more than 30 grams
of alcohol– equivalent to three to four units which is less than a
couple of pints of strong lager– increased their bowel cancer risk
by around 25 per cent."
A study found, "The proportion of patients with adenomas was 29.6%
in abstainers, 22.1% in moderate drinkers, and 36.7% in heavy
drinkers." It concluded "Consumption of less than seven alcohol
drinks per week does not increase the risk of having a colorectal
adenoma. We found evidence in this study that moderate alcohol
consumption among long-term smokers may potentially decrease the
risk of an adenoma compared to abstainers."
A Japanese study concluded, "One fourth of colorectal cancer cases
in men were attributable to an alcohol intake of ≥23 g/day."
A study of more than 1,280,000 middle-aged British women concluded
that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the
incidence of rectal cancer increases by 1 per 1000.
Liver cancer
Alcohol is a risk factor for liver cancer, through cirrhosis.
"Cirrhosis results from scar formation within the liver, most
commonly due to chronic alcohol use."
"Approximately 5 percent of people with cirrhosis develop liver
cancer. Cirrhosis is a disease that develops when liver cells are
replaced with scar tissue after damage from alcohol abuse, …"
The NIAAA reports that "Prolonged, heavy drinking has been
associated in many cases with primary
liver cancer." However, it is liver
cirrhosis, whether caused by alcohol or another factor, that is
thought to induce the cancer."
"The chances of getting
liver
cancer increase markedly with five or more drinks per day"
(NCI).
A study of more than 1,280,000 middle-aged British women concluded
that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the
incidence of liver cancer increases by 0.7 per 1000.
In the United States, liver cancer is relatively uncommon,
afflicting approximately 2 people per 100,000, but excessive
alcohol consumption is linked to as many as 36% of these cases by
some investigators "Overall, 61% of HCC were attributable to HCV
[hepatitis C virus], 13% to HBV [hepatitis B virus], and 18% to
heavy alcohol drinking."
A study in the province of Brescia
, northern
Italy concluded, "On the basis of population attributable risks
(AR), heavy alcohol intake seems to be the single most relevant
cause of HCC in this area (AR: 45%), followed by HCV (AR: 36%), and
HBV (AR: 22%) infection."
Lung cancer
Alcohol intake of more than 2 drinks per day is associated with a
small increased risk of lung cancer. Commenting on a study by
Freudenheim
et al., R. Curtis Ellison MD writes, "This
study, like others, suggests a weak, positive association between
consuming larger amounts of alcohol (>2 drinks a day) and lung
cancer risk."
Melanoma
High alcohol intake is associated with the development of
malignant melanoma.
Stomach cancer
"Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for
cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and
ovaries."
"While alcohol has been extensively studied as a cause of stomach
cancer there is no conclusive evidence that it increases risk.
However, results from at least three studies suggest that heavy
alcohol consumption may increase the risk of stomach cancer in
heavy smokers."
A Taiwanese study concluded, "…cigarette smoking may play the most
harmful role in the initial development of gastric cancer, and that
drinking alcohol may promote the process."
A Norwegian study found that, "No statistically significant
associations between various degrees of exposure to alcohol and
risk of gastric cancer was revealed, but combined high use of
cigarettes (>20/day) and alcohol (>5 occasions/14 days)
increased the risk of noncardia gastric cancer nearly 5-fold (HR =
4.90 [95% CI = 1.90-12.62]), compared to nonusers."
Alcohol consumption of 50g or more per day increases risk
Endometrial cancer
An
endometrial adenocarcinoma
invading the uterine muscle.
Alcohol has been identified as a risk factor for endometrial
cancer. Data however, on the association of alcohol intake and
endometrial cancer is conflicting. Where data exists for an
association low to moderate intake of alcohol, (less than two
drinks per day) is not associated with an increased risk but an
association has been suggested for higher alcohol intake. "Our
results suggest that only alcohol consumption equivalent to 2 or
more drinks per day increases risk of endometrial cancer in
postmenopausal women."
Gallbladder cancer
Alcohol has been suggested as a risk factor for gall bladder
cancer. Evidence suggests that a high intake of alcohol is
associated with gall bladder cancer. Men may be at a higher risk of
alcohol related gallbladder cancer than women.
Ovarian cancer
"Thus, the results of this study suggest that relatively elevated
alcohol intake (of the order of 40 g per day or more) may cause a
modest increase of epithelial ovarian cancer risk.". "Associations
were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the
ovary and prostate, but only for 50 g and 100 g a
day.""Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for
cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and
ovaries."
"Thus, this pooled analysis does not provide support for an
association between moderate alcohol intake and ovarian cancer
risk."
Prostate cancer
"Data from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study showed only a
weak association between overall alcohol intake and prostate cancer
risk, and no association at all between red wine intake and
prostate cancer risk."
A meta-analysis published in 2001 found a small but significant
increased risk for men drinking more than 50 g/day of alcohol, with
a slightly higher risk for men consuming more than 100 g/day. Since
that analysis, cohort studies in America have found increased risks
for men drinking moderate amounts of spirits, and for ‘binge
drinkers, but moderate consumption of beer or wine has not been
linked to an increased risk.
Alcohol consumption of 50 g and 100 g per dayis also associated
with cancers of the ovary and prostate. However, one study
concludes, that moderate alcohol consumption increases the risk of
prostate cancer. Liquor, but not wine or beer, consumption was
positively associated with prostate cancer."
The
Fred
Hutchinson Cancer Research Center found that men who consumed
four or more glasses of red wine per week had a 50 percent
reduction in the risk of developing prostate cancer. They "found no
significant effects — positive nor negative — associated with the
consumption of beer or hard liquor and no consistent risk reduction
with white wine, which suggests that there must be a beneficial
compound in red wine that other types of alcohol lack. That
compound … may be an antioxidant called
resveratrol, which is abundant in the skins of
red grapes.".
A
meta analysis of studies published
in 2009 found that consumption of only 2 standard drinks per day
increased the cancer risk by 20%.
Evidence of alcohol as a risk factor is mixed
Leukemia
Intake of alcohol during pregnancy has been associated with
childhood leukemia. A review published by the National Cancer
Institute placed maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy in
the category of "suggestive" but concluded that the risk was not
important.
- Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL)
For ALL in children, maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
is "unlikely to be an important risk factor for ALL"
- Acute myeloid leukemia (AML)
A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not
show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk,
some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped
dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL
risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may
be suggestive."
- Childhood AML
"Three studies have reported an increased risk (approximately 1.5-2
fold) in mothers who drank alcoholic beverages during pregnancy.
These associations have been particularly apparent in children
diagnosed younger than three years of age.". "Maternal alcohol
consumption during pregnancy increases the risk of infant leukemia,
especially AML."
- Acute non-lymphocytic leukemia (ANLL)
A study found that intrauterine exposure to alcohol doubled the
risk for childhood ANLL.
- Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)
A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not
show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk,
some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped
dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL
risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may
be suggestive."
- Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
A population-based case-control study in Italy found a
non-significant positive association between drinking and
CML.
- Hairy cell leukemia
A study concluded, "There was no association found for cigarette
smoking, alcohol or coffee consumption and hairy cell
leukemia."
Multiple myeloma (MM)
Alcohol has been suggested as a possible cause of multiple myeloma,
although a study found no association between MM in a comparison
study between drinkers and non-drinkers.
Pancreatic cancer
"About 7 out of 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to long
term heavy drinking. Chronic pancreatitis is a known risk factor
for cancer of the pancreas. But chronic pancreatitis that is due to
alcohol doesn't increase risk as much as other types of chronic
pancreatitis. So if there is a link with alcohol and pancreatic
cancer risk, it is only very slight."
Whilst the association between alcohol abuse and pancreatitis is
well established the association between alcohol consumption and
pancreatic cancer is less clear. Overall the evidence suggests a
slightly increased risk of pancreatic cancer with chronic heavy
alcohol consumption but the evidence remains conflicting with a
number of studies finding no association., but no increased risk
for people consuming up to 30g of alcohol a day
"Our findings indicate that alcohol drinking at the levels
typically consumed by the general population of the United States
is probably not a risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Our data
suggest, however, that heavy alcohol drinking may be related to
pancreatic cancer risk."
"Relative risks of pancreatic cancer increased with the amount of
alcohol consumed (Ptrend = 0.11) after adjustment for age, smoking
status, and pack-years of smoking."
"Alcoholics had only a modest 40% excess risk of pancreatic cancer
… The excess risk for pancreatic cancer among alcoholics is small
and could conceivably be attributed to confounding by
smoking."
"It was shown that the relative risk of cancer of the pancreas
increases with fat and alcohol intakes, … Alcohol may be not
directly involved in the aetiology of cancer of the pancreas: its
effect could be due to the contents of some alcoholic
beverages."
"When compared with data from non-drinkers, the cumulative lifetime
consumption of all types of alcohol in grams of ethanol… beer,
spirits, red wine and fortified wine was not related to risk. The
consumption of white wine was inversely associated with risk…. The
uniformly reduced risk estimates for the lifetime number of drinks
of white wine were based on small numbers…."
"For the most part, consumption of total alcohol, wine, liquor and
beer was not associated with pancreatic cancer."
"Data from these two large cohorts do not support any overall
association between coffee intake or alcohol intake and risk of
pancreatic cancer."
"Our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of
pancreatic cancer with consumption of 30 or more grams of alcohol
per day."
Alcohol consumption is not suspected to increase risk
This section lists cancers where alcohol is not listed as a risk
factor and where papers have been published.
Childhood astrocytoma
A study concluded that feotal exposure to alcohol is not associated
with childhood astrocytoma.
Bile duct cancer
A review of the literature found that there is no association
between alcohol use and
bile duct
cancer.
Bladder cancer
The currently available evidence suggests that there is no
significant association between alcohol use and
bladder cancer.
Cervical cancer
A study concluded "that alcoholic women are at high risk for
in
situ and invasive cervical cancer" but attributed this to
indirect, lifestyle-related reasons.
Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) breast cancer
"DCIS patients and control subjects did not differ with respect to
oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, alcohol
consumption or smoking history, or breast self-examination.
Associations for LCIS were similar."
Ependymoma
A review of the literature found that consumption of beer was
associated with increased risk in one study but not in
another
Intraocular and uveal melanomas
A study found no association between alcohol and uveal
melanoma.
Nasopharynageal cancer / Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC)
A
systematic review found evidence
that light drinking may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal
carcinoma whereas high intake of alcohol may increase the
risk.
Neuroblastoma
Alcohol intake has been associated with an increased risk of
developing neuroblastoma.
Salivary gland cancer (SGC)
Alcohol use is associated with an increased risk of salivary gland
cancer.
Small intestine cancer
A study of small intestine cancer patients reported that alcohol
consumption was associated with adenocarcinomas and malignant
carcinoid tumors.
"Heavy ethanol intake (>80 g a day) was also a risk factor in
both men and women, with no increased risk associated with lower
levels of ethanol intake, reported a study of patients in Los
Angeles County (US)."
"Alcohol and tobacco consumption did not increase the risk of
adenocarcinoma of the small intestine. … While the present data are
inconsistent with a major effect of tobacco or alcohol, a moderate
association between these factors and small bowel cancer may have
been obscured by the play of chance."
Testicular cancer
A review concluded that "There is no firm evidence of a causal
relation between behavior risks [tobacco, alcohol and diet] and
testicular cancer."
Thyroid cancer
Alcohol intake does not appear to be associated with the risk of
developing thyroid cancer. Another study suggests that drinking in
moderation significantly reduces the risk of some malignant tumors
such as thyroid cancer in women. However, another study concludes,
"A reduced risk associated with alcohol was eliminated after
adjustment for smoking…".
A 2009 study concluded, "These results suggest a potential
protective role for alcohol consumption in thyroid cancer."
Vaginal cancer
A Danish study found that "Abstinence from alcohol consumption was
associated with low risk for both VV-SCC
vagina and
VV-SCC
vulva in our study."
A study concluded that alcoholic women are at high risk for cancer
of the vagina. In both studies, indirect, lifestyle-related reasons
were cited.
Vulvar cancer
A study reported "No consistent association emerged between milk,
meat, liver, alcohol and coffee consumption and risk of vulvar
cancer." A Danish study that found the reverse, that alcohol
consumption as significantly associated with
VV-SCC
vagina and VV-SCC
vulva cancer. A
Swedish study that concluded that alcoholic women are at no higher
risk for cancer of the vulva.
Alcohol consumption might reduce risk
Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL)
A study concluded, "The results of this large-scale European study
… suggested a protective effect of alcohol on development of NHL
for men and in non-Mediterranean countries." A population based
case-control study in Germany found that alcohol reduced the risk
of HL for both men and women but more so for men, whose risk was
lowered by 53%.
A population-based case-control study in Italy reported a
protective effect of alcohol consumption on risk of HL among
non-smokers. Analysis of data from a series of case-control studies
in Northern Italy revealed a modest positive effect of alcohol on
lowering risk of HL among both smokers and non-smokers.
Kidney cancer (Renal cell carcinoma) (RCC)
"Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a lower risk of
renal cell cancer among both women and men in this pooled analysis"
"This pooled analysis found an inverse association between alcohol
drinking and RCC. Risks continued to decrease even above eight
drinks per day (i.e. >100 g/day) of alcohol intake, with no
apparent levelling in risk."
A study concluded, "Results from our prospective cohort study of
middle-aged and elderly women indicate that moderate alcohol
consumption may be associated with decreased risk of RCC."
Researchers who conducted a study in Iowa reported that "In this
population-based case-control investigation, we report further
evidence that alcohol consumption decreases the risk of RCC among
women but not among men. Our ability to show that the association
remains after multivariate adjustment for several new confounding
factors (i.e., diet, physical activity, and family history)
strengthens support for a true association.
Another study found no relationship between alcohol consumption and
risk of kidney cancer among either men or women.
A Finnish study concluded, "These data suggest that alcohol
consumption is associated with decreased risk of RCC in male
smokers. Because most of the risk reductions were seen at the
highest quartile of alcohol intake and alcohol is a risk factor for
a number of cancers particularly among smokers, these data should
be interpreted with caution." "Our data suggest an inverse
association between alcohol intake and risk of renal cell cancer…"
Compared with nondrinkers, men who drank one or more drinks per day
had a 31% lower risk of kidney cancer among 161,126 Hawaii-Los
Angeles Multiethnic Cohort participants.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)
A study concluded, "People who drink alcoholic beverages might have
a lower risk of NHL than those who do not, and this risk might vary
by NHL subtype." "Compared with nondrinkers, alcohol consumers had
a lower risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma overall … and for its main
subtypes." A study concluded, "Nonusers of alcohol had an elevated
NHL risk compared with users…"
Some studies have found a protective effect on NHL of drinking some
forms of alcoholic beverage or in some demographic groups. A study
of men in the US found that consumption of wine, but not beer or
spirits, was associated with a reduced NHL risk and a large
European study found a protective effect of alcohol among men and
in non-Mediterranean countries.." A study of older women in Iowa
found alcohol to reduce the risk of NHL and the amount of alcohol
consumed, rather than the type of alcohollic beverages, appeared to
be the main determinant in reducing risk."
Some studies have not found a protective effect from drinking.
Research in England found no association between frequency of
drinking and NHL and research in Sweden found that total beer,
wine, or liquor intake was not associated with any major subtype of
NHL examined, apart from an association between high wine
consumption and increased risk of chronic lymphocytic
leukemia.."
One study of NHL patients concluded, "Our findings strongly
encourage physicians to advice NHL patients to stop smoking and
diminish alcohol consumption to obtain improvements in the course
of NHL."
Recommended maximum alcohol intake
As outlined above, there is no recommended alcohol intake with
respect to cancer risk alone as it varies with each individual
cancer. See
Recommended
maximum intake of alcoholic beverages for a list of
governments' guidances on alcohol intake which, for a healthy man,
range from 140–280g per week.
One meta-analysis suggests that risks of cancers may start below
the recommended levels. "Risk increased significantly for drinkers,
compared with non-drinkers, beginning at an intake of 25 g ( 2
standard drinks) per day for the following: cancers of the oral
cavity and pharynx (relative risk, RR, 1.9), esophagus (RR 1.4),
larynx (RR 1.4), breast (RR 1.3), liver (RR 1.2), colon (RR 1.1),
and rectum (RR 1.1)"
References
External links
- Government and international bodies
- Cancer charities
- Other sites
- Science and medical sites
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