Some typical alcoholic beverages
An
alcoholic beverage is a
drink that contains
ethanol
(commonly called
alcohol). Alcoholic beverages are
divided into three general classes:
beers,
wines, and
spirits.
Alcoholic beverages are consumed in almost every
sovereign state, and most have laws that
regulate their production, sale, and consumption. In particular,
such laws specify the minimum age at which a person may legally buy
or drink alcoholic beverages. This minimum age can be as low as 16
years in some nations, however most nations set the minimum age at
18 years.
The production and consumption of alcohol occurs in most cultures
of the world, from
hunter-gatherer
peoples to
nation-states. Alcoholic
beverages are often an important part of social events in these
cultures. In many cultures,
drinking plays a significant role in social
interaction — mainly because of alcohol’s neurological
effects.
Alcohol is a psychoactive drug that has a
depressant effect. A high
blood alcohol content is usually
considered to be legal
drunkenness because it reduces
attention and slows reaction speed. Alcoholic
beverages can be addictive, and the state of
addiction to alcohol is known as
alcoholism.
Types
Alcoholic beverages that have a lower alcohol content (beer and
wine) are produced by
fermentation of sugar- or
starch-containing plant material; beverages of higher alcohol
content (spirits) are produced by fermentation followed by
distillation.
Beer
Beer is the world's oldest and most widely
consumed alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink
overall after water and tea. It is produced by the
brewing and
fermentation of
starches which are mainly derived from
cereal grains — most commonly
malted barley although wheat,
maize (corn), and rice are also used. Alcoholic beverages which are
distilled after fermentation, fermented
from non-cereal sources such as grapes or honey, or fermented from
un-malted
cereal grain, are not classified as
beer.
Most beer is flavored with
hops, which add
bitterness and act as a natural
preservative. Other flavorings, such as fruits
or herbs, may also be used. The alcoholic strength of beer is
usually 4% to 6% alcohol by volume (
abv), but it
may be less than 1% or more than 20%.
Beer is part of the
culture of
various nations and has acquired social traditions such as
beer festivals and
pub culture, which involves activities such as
pub crawling and
pub
games.
The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural
boundaries. The two main types of beer are
lager and
ale, which is further
classified into
varieties such
as
pale ale,
stout,
and
brown ale. The beer-brewing industry
is a global business, consisting of several dominant
multinational companies and
thousands of smaller producers, which range from
brewpubs to
regional breweries.
Wine
Wine involves a longer (complete) fermentation
process and a long
aging process
(months or years) that results in an alcohol content of 9%–16%
ABV.
Sparkling
wine can be made by adding a small amount of sugar before
bottling, which causes a secondary fermentation to occur in the
bottle.
Spirits
Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol
content of at least 20%
ABV are called
spirits. Spirits are
produced by
distillation of a fermented
product; this process
concentrates the
alcohol and eliminates some of the
congeners.
Spirits can be added to wines to create
fortified wines, such as
port and
sherry.
Alcohol content of beverages
The
concentration of alcohol in a
beverage is usually stated as the percentage of
alcohol by volume (
ABV) or—in the United States—as
proof. In the U.S.A.,
proof is
twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit
(e.g., 80 proof = 40% ABV).
Degrees proof were formerly
used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent
to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that
would sustain the
combustion of
gunpowder.
Ordinary
distillation cannot produce
alcohol of more than 95.6% ABV (191.2 proof) because at that point
alcohol is an
azeotrope with water.
Alcohol of this high level of purity is commonly called
neutral grain spirit.
Most
yeasts cannot reproduce when the
concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the
practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as
wine,
beer, and
sake. Strains of yeast have been developed that can
reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.
Serving sizes
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, serving size in
licensed premises is
regulated under the
Weights and
Measures Act . Spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) must be
sold in quantities of 25 milliliters or multiples thereof, or 35
milliliters or multiples thereof. A sign must be displayed stating
whether the 25 ml or the 35 ml measure is being used. See
alcoholic spirits measures.
Beer is typically sold in
pints (568 ml)
or half-pints. Traditionally, a crown stamp on a glass was used to
indicate that the glass was a full-sized measure. In 2008 however,
this was replaced by a Europe-wide mark “CE” (
Conformite
Europeenne), leading to public outcry at the removal of a
stamp that had been in use for over 300 years.
In addition to this, a system of
units
of alcohol exists as a guideline for alcohol consumption. A
unit of alcohol is defined as 10 millilitres of pure ethanol. The
number of units present in a typical drink is printed on bottles.
The system is intended as an aid to people regulating the amount of
alcohol they drink; it is not used to determine serving
sizes.
United States
In the United States, the standardized serving of an alcoholic
beverage contains of pure ethanol. That is approximately the amount
of ethanol in a serving of beer, a glass of wine, or a glass of a
40%
ABV spirit.
Flavoring
Alcohol is a moderately good
solvent for
many fatty substances and essential oils. This attribute
facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in
alcoholic beverages, especially
distilled beverages. Flavors may be
naturally present in the beverage’s base material. Beer and wine
may be flavored before fermentation. Spirits may be flavored
before, during, or after distillation.
Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for
months or years in oak barrels, usually American or French
oak.
A few brands of spirits have fruit or herbs inserted into the
bottle at the time of bottling.
Uses
In many countries, people drink alcoholic beverages at
lunch and
dinner.
At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as
Medieval Europe), the
consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne
diseases such as
cholera.
Small beer and
faux wine, in particular, were used for this
purpose. Although alcohol kills bacteria, its low concentration in
these beverages would have had only a limited effect. More
important was that the boiling of water (required for the
brewing of beer) and the growth of yeast
(required for
fermentation of
beer and wine) would tend to kill dangerous
microorganisms. The alcohol content of these
beverages allowed them to be stored for months or years in simple
wood or clay containers without spoiling. For this reason, they
were commonly kept aboard sailing vessels as an important (or even
the sole) source of
hydration for the
crew, especially during the long voyages of the
early modern period.
In cold climates, strong alcoholic beverages such as
vodka are popularly seen as a way to “warm up” the
body, possibly because alcohol is a quickly absorbed source of
food energy and because it dilates
peripheral blood vessels (peripherovascular dilation). This is a
misconception because the perception of warmth is actually caused
by the transfer of heat from the body’s core to its extremities,
where it is quickly lost to the environment.
Drunk driving
Most countries have laws against
drunk driving, i.e., driving
with a certain concentration of alcohol in the blood. Punishments
for violation include
fine, temporary
loss of
driving license, and
imprisonment.
The legal threshold of
blood
alcohol content ranges from 0.0% to 0.08%, according to local
law. Similar prohibitions exist for drunk sailing, drunk bicycling,
and even drunk rollerblading.
In many places in the United States, it is illegal to have an open
container of an alcoholic beverage in the passenger compartment of
a vehicle.
Effects
Short-term effects of
alcohol consumption include intoxication, dehydration, and
ultimately alcohol poisoning.
Long-term effects of alcohol
include changes to metabolism in the liver, the brain, and possibly
addiction (
alcoholism). Studies have
found that alcohol absorption is reduced when food is consumed
prior to alcohol consumption, and the rate which alcohol is
eliminated from the blood is increased. The mechanism for the
increased alcohol elimination appears to be unrelated to food type.
The likely mechanism is food-induced increases in
alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and liver blood flow.
Short term effects
Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech,
clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. Alcohol stimulates insulin
production, which speeds up the glucose metabolism and can result
in low blood sugar, causing irritability, and possibly death for
diabetics; in normal subjects severe
alcohol poisoning can also be lethal. A blood-alcohol content of
0.45% represents the
LD50, or the amount which
would prove fatal in 50% of test subjects. This is about six times
the level of intoxication (0.08%), but vomiting and/or
unconsciousness are triggered much sooner in people with a low
tolerance, among whom such high levels are rarely reached unless a
large amount of alcohol is consumed very quickly. However, chronic
heavy drinkers' high tolerance may allow some of them to remain
conscious at levels above .4%, despite the serious health
dangers.
Mortality rate
A 2001 report estimates that medium and high consumption of alcohol
led to 75,754 deaths in the USA. Low consumption has some
beneficial effects, so a net 59,180 deaths were attributed to
alcohol.
In the U.K., heavy drinking is blamed for up to 33,000 deaths a
year.
A study in Sweden found that 29% to 44% of "unnatural" deaths
(those not caused by illness) were related to alcohol; the causes
of death included suicide, falls, traffic injuries, asphyxia,
intoxication and murder.
A global study found that 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are
caused by alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all global cancer
deaths. A U.K. study found that alcohol causes about 6% of cancer
deaths in the U.K., killing over 9,000 people a year.
Heart disease
One study found that men who drank moderate amounts of alcohol
three or more times a week were up to 35% less likely to have a
heart attack than non-drinkers, and men who increased their alcohol
consumption by one drink a day over the 12 years of the study had a
22% lower risk of heart attack.
Daily intake of 1 or 2
units of
alcohol (a half or full regular size glass of wine) is
associated with a lower risk of
coronary heart disease in men over 40
and women who have been through the menopause. However, getting
drunk at least once a month puts women at a significantly increased
risk of heart attack, negating any of alcohol's potential
protective effect.
Increased
longevity is almost entirely the
result of lowered coronary heart disease.
Dementia
Long-term moderate or short-term excessive (
binge) drinking has been linked to
dementia; it is estimated that between 10% to 24%
of dementia cases are caused by alcohol consumption, with women
being at greater risk than men.
The consumption of alcohol does not kill brain cells but rather
damages
dendrites, the branched ends of
nerve cells that bring messages into the cell. Alcohol dilates the
channels in the cellular structure that regulate the flow of
calcium, causing excess calcium to flow into the cells and
stimulating increased activity. This does not kill the whole cell,
but causes a loss of the end segments, leading to the loss of
incoming signals and therefore a change in brain function. Most of
this damage is temporary, but the recovery process changes
nerve-cell structure permanently.
In people aged 55 and over, daily light to moderate drinking (one
to three drinks) was associated with a 42% drop in the probability
of developing dementia, and a 70% reduction in risk of
vascular dementia. The researchers suggest
alcohol may stimulate the release of
acetylcholine in the
hippocampus area of the brain.
Cancer
Alcohol consumption has been linked with seven different types of
cancer:
mouth cancer,
pharyngeal cancer,
oesophageal cancer,
laryngeal cancer,
breast cancer,
bowel
cancer and
liver cancer. The risk
of developing cancer increases even with a moderate consumption of
as little as 3
units of alcohol
(one pint of lager or a large glass of wine) a day. Heavy drinkers
are more likely to develop liver cancer due to
cirrhosis of the liver.
A global study found that 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are
caused by alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all global cancer
deaths. A U.K. study found that alcohol causes about 6% of cancer
deaths in the U.K., killing over 9,000 people a year.
Women who regularly consume low to moderate amounts of alcohol have
an increased risk of cancers of the upper digestive tract, rectum,
liver, and breast. For both men and women, consuming two or more
drinks daily increases the risk of pancreatic cancer by 22%.
Red wine contains
resveratrol, which has
some anti-cancer effects in laboratory cells, however, based on
studies done so far, there is no strong evidence that red wine
could protect against cancer in humans.
Alcoholism
Proclivity to
alcoholism is believed to
be partially genetic; individuals with such propensity may have a
different biochemical response to alcohol, though this is disputed.
Alcohol addiction can also lead to malnutrition because it can
alter digestion and metabolism of most nutrients. Severe thiamine
deficiency is common due to deficiency of folate, riboflavin,
vitamin B
6 and selenium and can lead to
Korsakoff's syndrome. Muscle cramps,
nausea, appetite loss, nerve disorders and depression are some
common symptoms. It can also lead to osteoporosis and bone
fractures due to vitamin D deficiency (vitamin D helps in calcium
absorption).
Diabetes
Daily consumption of a small amount of pure ethanol by older women
may slow or prevent the onset of diabetes by lowering the level of
blood glucose. However, the researchers caution that the study used
pure ethanol, and that everyday alcoholic drinks contain additives,
including sugar, which would negate the effect.
People with diabetes should avoid sugary drinks, sweet wines, and
liquers.
Stroke
A study found that lifelong abstainers were 2.36 times more likely
to suffer a
stroke than those who drank a
moderate amount regularly. Heavy drinkers were 2.88 times more
likely to suffer a stroke than moderate drinkers.
Longevity
Alcohol consumption by the elderly results in increased
longevity, almost entirely as a result of lowered
coronary heart disease.
One study found that consumption of 2
units of alcohol (one regular glass of
wine) daily by doctors aged 48+ years increased
longevity by reducing the risk of death by
ischaemic heart disease and
respiratory disease. Deaths
where alcohol consumption is known to increase risk accounted for
only 5% of the total deaths, but this figure was increased for
those who drank more than 2 units of alcohol per day.
Alcohol expectations
Alcohol expectations are beliefs that individuals hold about the
effects they experience from drinking. They are largely beliefs
about how the consumption of alcohol will affect a person’s
emotions, abilities and behaviors. To the extent that alcohol
expectancies can be changed, it may be possible to reduce a major
social and health problem, that of alcohol abuse.
If people in a society generally believe that intoxication leads to
aggression, sexual behavior AKA "
beer
goggles", or rowdy behavior, they tend to act that way when
intoxicated. If the society teaches that intoxication leads to
relaxation and tranquil behavior, it virtually always leads to
those outcomes. Alcohol expectations vary within a population so
outcomes are not uniform.
People tend to conform to social expectations and a common belief
in most societies is that alcohol causes disinhibition. However, in
those societies in which people don’t believe that alcohol
disinhibits, intoxication virtually never leads to unacceptable
behaviors because of “disinhibition”.
Alcohol expectations can operate in the absence of actual
consumption of alcohol. Research in the U.S. over a period of
decades has shown that men tend to become physically more sexually
aroused when they think they have been drinking alcohol, even when
they haven't. Women report feeling more sexually aroused when they
falsely believe the beverages they have been consuming contain
alcohol, although a measure of their physiological arousal shows
that they are physically becoming less aroused.
Men tend to become more aggressive in laboratory studies in which
they are drinking only tonic water but believe that it contains
alcohol. They also become relatively less aggressive when they
think they are drinking only tonic water, but are actually drinking
tonic containing alcohol.
The phenomenon of alcohol expectations recognizes that intoxication
has real physiological consequences affecting perceptions of space
and time, reducing psychomotor skills, disrupting equilibrium and a
number of other behaviors.
The manner and degree to which alcohol expectations interact with
the physiological effects of intoxication to yield the behavior
that results is unclear.
Alcohol and religion
Some religions—most notably
Islam,
Sikhism,
Jainism, the
Bahá'í Faith,
The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the
Seventh-day Adventist Church,
the
Church of Christ,
Scientist, the
Theravada and most
Mahayana schools of
Buddhism, some
Protestant sects of
Fundamentalist Christianity and
some sects of
Hinduism—forbid, discourage,
or restrict the consumption of alcoholic beverages for various
reasons.
In Islam, alcoholic beverages or any intoxicants are forbidden by
the Qur'an through several separate verses that were revealed at
different times over a period of years. At first, it was forbidden
for Muslims to attend to prayers while intoxicated ( ). Then a
later verse was revealed which said, "They ask you about
intoxicants and games of chance. Say: In both of them there is a
great sin and means of profit for men, and their sin is greater
than their profit." This was the next step in turning people away
from consumption of it. Finally, "intoxicants and games of chance"
were called "abominations of Satan's handiwork", intended to turn
people away from God and forget about prayer, and Muslims were
ordered to abstain ( ). Most Muslims avoid consuming alcohol in any
type of form, even in slight amounts, such as used in cooking. Only
the use of alcohol for medical, scientific, industrial and
automotive purposes is allowed. But, the Islamic view on heaven
includes promises of "rivers of the finest wine". ( ).
Many
Christian denominations use wine in the
Eucharist or Communion and permit the use
of alcohol in moderation, while others use unfermented grape juice
in Communion and abstain from alcohol by choice or prohibit it
outright.
Judaism uses wine on
Shabbat for
Kiddush as well
as in the
Passover ceremony and in other
religious ceremonies, including
Purim, and
allows the use of alcohol, such as
kosher
wine. Many ancient
Jewish texts such as the
Talmud even encourage moderate amounts of
drinking on holidays such as
Purim, in order
to make the occasion more joyous.
Buddhist texts recommend refraining
from drugs and alcohol, because they may inhibit mindfulness.
Some
pagan religions, however, had a
completely opposite view of alcohol and drunkenness; they actively
promoted them as means of fostering
fertility. Alcohol was thought to increase sexual
desire and to lower the threshold of approaching another person for
sex. For example,
Norse paganism
considered alcohol to be the sap of
Yggdrasil, and
drunkenness was an important
fertility rite in this religion.
Paradoxically, one of the effects of alcohol intoxication is the
reduction of
sexual arousal.
Government regulation
Alcohol consumption by country
Outright prohibition of alcohol
Some countries forbid the production and consumption of alcoholic
beverages.
In the
United
States
, there was an attempt from 1920 to 1933 to
eliminate the consumption of alcoholic beverages through national
prohibition of
their manufacture and sale. This period became known as the
prohibition
era.
During this period the 18th
Amendment to the Constitution of the United
States made manufacture, sale and transportation of alcoholic
beverages illegal throughout the United States. However, this project led to the
unintended consequences of causing
widespread disrespect for the law as many people sought alcoholic
beverages from illegal sources, and of creating a lucrative
business for illegal purveyors of alcohol (
bootleggers), which led to the development of
organized crime. As a result
prohibition became widely unpopular, leading to repeal of the 18th
Amendment in 1933. Prior to national prohibition, beginning in the
late 19th century, many
state and
localities had enacted prohibition within their jurisdictions, and
following repeal of the 18th Amendment, some communities in the
United States (known as
dry counties)
still ban alcohol sales.
The
Nordic countries (Norway
and Finland
) also had a
period of alcohol prohibition in the early 20th century.
This was the result of
social
democratic campaigning. Prohibition did not have popular
support resulting in large-scale smuggling. Following the end of
prohibition, state
alcohol
monopolies were established with detailed restrictions and high
taxes. Some restrictions have been lifted. For example,
supermarkets in Finland are allowed to sell only fermented
beverages with an alcohol content up to 4.7%, but
Alko, the government monopoly, is allowed to sell wine
and spirits. This is also the case with the Swedish
Systembolaget and the Norwegian
Vinmonopolet.
- In Iceland, beer with an alcohol percentage of 2.25% or less is
sold in supermarkets. Stronger beer, wine or other spirits are sold
in 'Vinbudin'.
Some
Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia
, prohibit alcohol for religious
reasons.
Prohibition of drinking alcohol in public places
Drinking alcohol in public places, such as streets and parks, is
against the law in most of the United States and in some European
countries, but it is legal in others, such as Germany and the
United Kingdom.
In the Netherlands, it is not banned by national law, but many
cities and towns prohibit possession of an open container of an
alcoholic beverage in a public place. In India, the state of
Gujarat has prohibited sale and consumption of alcohol, in many
other states prohibition laws were in place at different times in
past.
Age restrictions
Most countries have a
legal drinking
age that prohibits the sale of alcoholic beverages to
minors. The age at which this prohibition ends,
as well as the degree to which it is enforced, varies significantly
from country to country.
Argentina
In
Argentina
, the minimum age required for purchasing alcohol is
18 years. It is illegal for anyone to sell alcoholic
beverages to people under this age. However, there is no minimum
age for its consumption.
Australia
In
Australia, the minimum age for the
purchase of alcohol, but not necessarily its consumption, is 18
years.
In
New South
Wales
, Victoria
and Queensland
, it is illegal for anyone to supply alcohol to a
person under the age of 18.
Canada
In
Canada
, the legal drinking age is 18 years in the
provinces of Alberta
, Manitoba
, and Quebec
, and 19
years in the other provinces.
Europe
Laws covering the
legal drinking
age and sale of alcoholic beverages in
Europe vary from country to country, both in terms of
legal drinking age and the age to legally purchase alcohol; the
legal drinking age is usually 16 to 18. Some countries have a
tiered structure restricting the sales of stronger alcoholic drinks
(typically based on alcohol% w/w) to older adults.
For example, in the
Netherlands
, Germany
,Switzerland
, Belgium
, and
Austria
, a purchaser
of beer or wine must be 16, and 18 for distilled alcoholic
beverages. Germany's law is directed toward sellers of
alcoholic beverages, not toward minors themselves; German law vests
control of the consumption of alcoholic beverage in the hands of
parents and guardians.
In the United Kingdom
, the minimum age for purchasing alcohol is 18,
although minors aged 16 or above may consume some types of alcohol
in restaurants with a meal, if accompanied by an adult Children are
able to drink in the home from the age of five. Shop workers
under 18 may not legally sell alcohol.
In France
the
purchasing age for alcohol was increased from 16 to 18 on July 23,
2009. In Portugal
people must be 16 to buy alcoholic
beverages. The same is in Italy
, where 16 is
the legal age to either purchase alcohol and work in public places
where alcohol is served, while the minimum age for the consumption
of alcoholic beverages is 14; however it must be noted that the law
is seldom enforced, if ever at all, and that in Italy a license is
required only for those establishments dedicated to serve alcohol
to the public (es. Bars,
Pubs, etc.), while the
sale is
non-restricted and as such alcoholic beverages are normally sold in
grocery stores and
supermarkets, where no proof-of-age is asked for
the purchase.
In Ireland
and Poland
the legal
drinking age is 18.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the legal age to purchase, possess and consume
alcohol is 18.
India
In some states of India, the legal age to purchase, and consume
alcohol is 25 years. Generally, Bars and Pubs in India display
signs which state that entry is allowed only for persons of age 21
and above, but the rule is seldom followed as evidenced by the
number of college/birthday parties held by teenagers in pubs and
bars. The general drinking age in the country varies from 18 to
25.
Japan
In
Japan
, the legal age for purchasing and consuming alcohol
is 20 years.
Korea
In
Korea
, the legal drinking age is 19 years, but it is
generally acceptable to drink after graduation from high schools,
even though those who graduate from high schools are usually
18. In the traditional Korean society, minors' purchasing
alcoholic beverages itself did not seem illegal because there were
adults who sent their children to buy some alcoholic beverage.
These days, however, sellers of alcoholic beverages are required to
check the age of the person who purchases them.
Nordic countries
In the
Nordic countries (except for
Denmark), the legal drinking age is 18 years, but these rights are
limited up to the age of 20.
In Iceland
and Sweden
, purchasers
and possessors of alcoholic beverages must be 20, although 18- and
19-year-olds are allowed to drink alcohol. In Finland and Norway, purchase
and possession of alcoholic beverages with up to 22% ABV is allowed from age 18, for stronger drinks from age
20. In Finland and Sweden (but not in Norway), stronger
drinks may be ordered in a restaurant from age 18.
Denmark
allows any type of alcoholic beverage (above 1.2%)
to be purchased at age 16.
United States of America
Exceptions to the minimum age of 21
for consumption of alcohol in the United States, as of January 1,
2007
The legal age for purchase or possession (but not necessarily
consumption) in every state has been 21 since shortly after the
passage of the
National Minimum Drinking Age
Act in 1984, which tied federal highway funds to states'
maintaining a minimum drinking age of 21.
Eighteen
states (Arkansas
, California
, Connecticut
, Florida
, Georgia
, Kentucky
, Maryland
, Massachusetts
, Mississippi
, Missouri
, Nevada
, New Hampshire
, New
Mexico
, New
York
, Oklahoma
, Rhode
Island
, South
Carolina
, and
Wyoming
) and the District of Columbia
have laws against possession of alcohol by minors
but do not prohibit its consumption by minors.
Thirteen
states (Alaska
, Colorado
, Delaware
, Illinois
, Louisiana
, Maine
, Minnesota
, Missouri, Montana
, Ohio
, Oregon
, Texas
, Washington
, and Wisconsin
) specifically permit minors to drink alcohol given
to them by their parents or a person their parents see
fit.
Many states also specifically permit consumption under the age of
21 for religious or health reasons.
Restrictions on manufacturing
In many countries, production of alcoholic beverages requires a
license, and alcohol production is taxed.
In the United States, the sale of alcoholic beverages is controlled
by the individual states, the counties or parishes within each
state, and then by local jurisdictions within counties. For
example, in most of North Carolina, beer and wine may be purchased
in retail stores, but distilled spirits are only available at state
ABC (Alcohol Beverage Control) stores. In Maryland, distilled
spirits are available in liquor stores except in Montgomery County
where the county runs the ABC stores. A county that prohibits the
sale of alcohol is known as a
dry
county.
In most states, individuals may freely produce wine and beer
usually up to 100 gallons per adult per year, but no more than 200
gallons per household per year for personal consumption (but not
for sale). However, in St. Mary's County, Maryland, a "bona fide"
resident may sell beer and native wines from their home.
The production of distilled beverages is regulated and taxed. The
Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives and the
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax
and Trade Bureau (formerly one organization known as the
Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms) enforce federal laws and
regulations related to alcohol. Illegal manufacture of distilled
liquor is often referred to as "
moonshining," and the product, which is not aged
and contains a high percentage of alcohol, is often called "white
lightning."
All alcoholic product packaging must contain a
health warning from the
Surgeon
General.
In the
United
Kingdom, the Customs and Excise department
issues distilling licenses. New Zealand
is one of the few countries where it is not only
legal to produce any form of alcohol for personal use, including
spirits, it is neither taxed nor licensed. This has made the
sale and use of home distillation equipment popular.
Restrictions on sale and possession
Canada
In most Canadian provinces, there is a
government monopoly on the sale of
alcohol, for example the
Liquor Control Board of
Ontario, or
Liquor
Distribution Branch of British Columbia. The idea of government
control and supervision of the sale of alcohol was a compromise
devised in the 1920s between "drys" and "wets" to end
Prohibition in Canada. Some provinces
have moved away from government control: in Alberta privately-owned
liquor stores exist, while in Quebec a limited number of wines and
liquors can be purchased at
dépanneurs and grocery stores.
At the same time Canada has some of the highest
excise taxes on alcohol in the world, referred
to as a "
sin tax", this is a source of
income for governments and is also meant to discourage
over-consumption. (see
Taxation
in Canada).
Other restrictions on the sale of alcohol vary from province to
province. In Alberta, changes introduced in 2008 included a ban on
"
happy hour", minimum prices, and a limit
on the number of drinks a person can purchase at one time after 1pm
in bars and pubs.
Nordic countries
In each
of the Nordic countries except
Denmark, there is a government monopoly on the selling of
hard alcohol in stores.
In Sweden, beer with a lower alcohol content, called
folköl (2.25% to 3.5% alcohol by weight), can be sold in
regular stores to anyone older than 18, but drinks with a high
alcohol content can only be sold by government-run vendors to
people older than 20, or in licensed facilities such as restaurants
and bars, where the age limit is 18. The law states that alcoholic
drinks bought at these licensed facilities must be consumed on the
premises, and it is not allowed to consume alcoholic drinks bought
elsewhere. For
non-alcoholic
drinks there is no such legal requirement, but individual
facilities may still set their own restrictions.
In Norway, beers with an alcohol content of 4.74% by volume or less
can be legally sold in grocery stores. Stronger beers, wine and
spirits can only be bought at official government-run vendors. All
alcoholic beverages can be bought at licensed bars and restaurants,
provided they are consumed on the premises. Beers and wine can be
purchased by anyone of age 18 or older, spirits by anyone 20 or
over. Norway levies some of the heaviest fees in the world on
alcoholic beverages, particularly spirits, on top of a 25% GST on
all goods and services. For example, 700 ml of Absolut Vodka
currently retails at 275 NOK, which is about
US$54.
The state-run vendor is called
Systembolaget in Sweden,
Vinmonopolet in Norway,
Alko in Finland, and
Vínbúð in Iceland. The governments
claim that the purpose of this system is to cut down on the
consumption of alcohol in these countries where binge drinking is
an ancient tradition. The first such monopoly was in Falun in the
19th century. In the early 20th century, Sweden had a brief
prohibition of strong alcoholic drinks, followed by strict
rationing, and then more lax regulation, including being open on
Saturdays. These measures have had success in the past, but since
joining the European Union it has been harder to curb importation,
legal or illegal, from other EU countries, making these measures
less effective. There is an ongoing debate over whether or not to
maintain the state-run alcohol monopolies.
Denmark
In
Denmark, people can buy all kinds of alcoholic beverages
from grocery stores. The legal age of purchasing alcohol is
16 in shops, and 18 in bars and restaurants. Until 1998 there was
no age limit to buy alcohol in shops. It is generally legal to
drink alcoholic beverages in the street, however, you have to be at
least 18 years old, but restrictions are sometimes applied by local
authorities in problem areas.
On public transportation, it is generally allowed to drink alcohol,
but not to act heavily intoxicated, a rule enforced less strictly
than in neighboring Scandinavian countries.
Home production of wine and beer is not regulated. Home
distillation of spirits is legal, however not common since it is
subject to the same taxation as spirits sold commercially.
Bootlegging is rarely heard of, in contrast to rural Sweden and
Norway. Danish alcohol taxes are significantly lower than in Sweden
and Norway, but higher than in most other European countries.
United States of America
Map of open container laws in the
United States by state, as of September 2007
- See also: Alcohol laws of
Kansas, Alcohol laws of
Missouri, Alcohol laws of
New York, Alcohol laws of
Oklahoma
In the United States, the places where alcohol may be sold and/or
possessed, like all other alcohol restrictions, varies from state
to state.
Some states, like Nevada, Louisiana, Missouri, and Connecticut, have very permissive and laissez-faire alcohol laws, whereas other
states, like Kansas
and
Oklahoma, have very strict alcohol laws.
Many U.S. states require that distilled liquor be sold only in
dedicated
liquor stores.
In fourteen alcoholic beverage control
states (Alabama
, Idaho
, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, New
Hampshire, North
Carolina
, Oregon, Pennsylvania
, Utah
, Vermont
, Virginia
, Washington, and Wyoming), liquor stores are run by the state itself,
ostensibly to prevent young cashiers from allowing sales to
underage friends while pretending to verify their age.
In
Nevada, Missouri, and Louisiana however, state law does not specifically enumerate
the precise locations where alcohol may be sold, allowing even
gas stations to sell any alcoholic
beverage as if they were liquor stores. In some states,
liquor sales are prohibited on Sunday by a
blue
law.
Most U.S. states follow a
three-tier system where
producers cannot sell directly to retailers, but must instead sell
to distributors, who in turn sell to retailers. Exceptions often
exist for brewpubs (pubs which brew their own beer) and wineries,
which are allowed to sell their products directly to consumers.
Although all U.S. states have laws against drunk driving (usually
defined as driving with at or above 0.08%
blood alcohol content), most U.S.
states also do not allow
open containers of alcohol inside
of moving vehicles. The federal
Transportation Equity Act for
the 21st Century of 1999 mandates that if a state does not
prohibit open containers of alcohol inside of all moving vehicles,
a percentage of its federal highway funds will be transferred
instead to alcohol education programs each year.
As of November, 2007,
only one state (Mississippi) allows drivers to consume alcohol while driving
(below the 0.08% limit), and only seven states (Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Mississippi, Missouri, Virginia, and West Virginia
) allow passengers to consume alcohol while the
vehicle is in motion.
Five U.S.
states limit alcohol sales in grocery
stores and gas stations to beer at or below 3.2% alcohol: Colorado, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Utah. In
these states, stronger beverages are restricted to liquor stores.
In
Oklahoma, liquor stores may not refrigerate any beverage
containing more than 3.2% alcohol. Missouri also has provisions for 3.2% beer, but its permissive alcohol laws (when
compared to other states) make this type of beer a
rarity.
Most states ban drinking alcoholic beverages in public (i.e. in the
street).
Moreover, even where a state, like Nevada, Louisiana, or Missouri, has no laws against drinking alcoholic beverages
in public, the vast majority of cities and counties in them do ban
drinking alcoholic beverages in public. Still, in the
French
Quarter
of New Orleans, Louisiana
, the Power & Light District
of Kansas City, Missouri
, and Beale
Street
of Memphis, Tennessee
, state law specifically allow persons over the age
of 21 to possess alcoholic beverages in plastic cups on the street.
Often, bars serving distilled liquor are exempted from
smoking bans where they exist in the United
States (
see list of smoking bans
in the United States.)
History
Alcohol has been used by people around the world, in the standard
diet, for hygienic/medical reasons, for its
relaxant and euphoric effects, for
recreational purposes, for
artistic inspiration, as
aphrodisiacs, and for other reasons. Some drinks
have been invested with symbolic or religious significance
suggesting the mystical use of alcohol, e.g. by
Greco-Roman religion in the
ecstatic rituals of
Dionysus (also called Bacchus), god of wine and
revelry; in the
Christian Eucharist; and on the
Jewish Shabbat and festivals
(particularly
Passover).
Fermented beverages
Chemical
analysis of traces absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the
Neolithic village of Jiahu, in Henan province, Northern China
, have
revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit
was being produced as early as 9,000 years ago. This is
approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were
beginning to be made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on
clay tablets and art in
Mesopotamia that
show individuals using straws to drink
beer
from large vats and pots. The
Hindu Ayurvedic texts describe both the beneficent uses
of alcoholic beverages and the consequences of intoxication and
alcoholic diseases.
Most of the peoples in India
and China,
have continued, throughout, to ferment a portion of their crops and
nourish themselves with the alcoholic product. However,
devout adherents of
Buddhism, which arose
in India in the 5th and 6th centuries BC and spread over southern
and eastern Asia, abstain to this day, as do devout
Hindus and
Sikhs. In Mesopotamia
and Egypt, the birthplace of beer and wine,
Islam is now the predominant religion, and it also
prohibits the drinking and even the handling of alcoholic
beverages.
Wine was consumed in
Classical
Greece at breakfast or at
symposia,
and in the 1st century BC it was part of the diet of most
Roman citizens. However, both Greeks and Romans
generally consumed diluted wine (with strengths varying from 1 part
wine and 1 part water to 1 part wine and 4 parts water). The
transformation of water into wine at the
wedding at Cana is the first of the miracles
attributed to
Jesus in the
New Testament, and His use of wine in the
Last Supper led to it becoming an
essential part of the
Eucharist rite in
most
Christian traditions (see
Christianity and alcohol).
In
Europe during the
Middle Ages, beer was consumed by the whole
family, thanks to a triple fermentation process—the men had the
strongest, then women, then children. A document of the times
mentions
nuns having an allowance of six pints
of ale a day.
Cider and
pomace wine were also widely available, while
grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes.
By the time the Europeans reached the
Americas in the 15th century, several
native civilizations had
developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-Conquest
Aztec document, consumption of the local
"wine" (
pulque) was generally
restricted to religious ceremonies, but freely allowed to those
over 70 years old. The natives of
South
America manufactured a beer-like product from
cassava or
maize (
cauim,
chicha),
which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the
starch into sugars.
This chewing
technique was also used in ancient Japan to make
sake from rice and
other starchy crops.
The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian
texts dated from 2100 BC or earlier. The
Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks
to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their
misery (
Proverbs 31:6-7).
Distilled beverages
The
distillation of alcohol can be traced back to China, Central Asia and the Middle East. In particular,
Muslim chemists were the first to produce
fully purified distilled alcohol. It later spread to Europe in the
mid-12th century, and by the early 14th century it had spread
throughout the continent.
It also spread eastward, mainly due to the
Mongols, and began in China no later
than the 14th century. Paracelsus
gave alcohol its modern name, taking it from the Arabic word which
means "finely divided", a reference to distillation.
Alcoholic beverages in American history
In the early 19th century, Americans had inherited a hearty
drinking tradition. Many different types of alcoholic beverages
were consumed. One reason for this heavy
drinking was an overabundance
of
corn on the western
frontier. This overabundance
encouraged the widespread production of cheap whiskey. It was at
this time that alcoholic beverages became an important part of the
American diet. In the mid 1820s, Americans drank seven gallons of
alcohol per capita annually.
During the 19th century, Americans drank an abundance of alcohol
and drank it in two distinctive ways.
One way was to drink small amounts daily and regularly, usually at
home or alone. The other way consisted of
communal binges. Groups of
people would gather in a public place for elections, court
sessions, militia musters, holiday celebrations, or neighborly
festivities. Participants would typically drink until they became
intoxicated.
Chemistry and toxicology
Chemistry to:
Toxicology to:
Ethanol (CH
3CH
2OH),
the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks, for consumption purposes
is always produced by
fermentation – the
metabolism of
carbohydrates - by certain species of
yeast in the absence of
oxygen.
The process of culturing yeast under alcohol-producing conditions
is referred to as
brewing. The same process
produces carbon dioxide
in situ, and may be used to
carbonate the drink. However, this method leaves yeast residues and
on the industrial scale, carbonation is usually done
separately.
Drinks with a concentration of more than 50% ethanol by volume (100
US proof) are
flammable liquids and easily
ignited. Some exotic drinks gain their distinctive flavors through
intentional ignition, such as the
Flaming Dr Pepper. Spirits with a higher
ethanol content can be ignited with ease by heating slightly, e.g.
adding the spirit to a warmed shot glass.
Humans can metabolize ethanol as an energy-providing nutrient.
Ethanol is metabolized into
acetaldehyde and then into
acetic acid. Acetic acid is esterified with
coenzyme A to produce
acetyl CoA. Acetyl
CoA carries the acetyl
moiety into
the
citric acid cycle, which
produces energy by oxidizing the acetyl moiety into
carbon dioxide. Acetyl CoA can also be used
for biosynthesis. Acetyl CoA is an intermediate common with the
metabolism of sugars and fats, and it is the product of
glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose.
When compared to other
alcohols, ethanol is
only slightly toxic, with a lowest known lethal dose in humans of
1400 mg/kg (about 20 shots for a 100 kg person), and a
LD50 of 9000 mg/kg (oral, rat).
Nevertheless, accidental overdosing of alcoholic drinks, especially
those of concentrated variety, is a risk, especially for women,
lightweight persons and children. These people have a smaller
quantity of water in their bodies, so that alcohol is diluted less.
A
blood alcohol
concentration of 50 to 100 mg/dL may be considered legal
drunkenness (laws vary by jurisdiction).
The threshold of effects is at 22 mg/dL.
Alcohol affects the
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
receptors, to produce a depressant (neurochemical inhibitory)
effect. Alcohol is similar to other sedative-hypnotics such as
barbiturates and
benzodiazepines both in its effect on the
GABA
A receptor although its pharmacological profile is
not identical. It has
anxiolytic,
anticonvulsant,
hypnotic and
sedative
actions similar to many other sedative-hypnotic drugs. Alcohol is
also
cross-tolerant with
benzodiazepines and
barbiturates.
Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to a toxication-induced
delayed poisoning called
hangover (in
Latin,
crapula refers to
intoxication and hangover). Various factors contribute, including
the toxication of ethanol itself to
acetaldehyde, the direct toxic effects and
toxication of impurities called
congeners,
and
dehydration. The hangover starts
after the euphoric effects of alcohol itself have subsided,
typically in the night and morning after alcoholic drinks were
consumed. However, the blood alcohol concentration may still be
substantial and above the limits imposed for drivers and operators
of other dangerous equipment. The effects of a hangover subside
over time. Various treatments to cure hangover have been suggested,
many of them pseudoscientific.
In
chemistry,
alcohol is a general term for any
organic compound in which a
hydroxyl group
(-
OH) is bound to a
carbon atom, which in turn may be bound to
other carbon atoms and further hydrogens. Other alcohols such as
propylene glycol and the
sugar alcohols may appear in food or beverages
regularly, but these alcohols do not make them "alcoholic".
Methanol (one carbon), the
propanols (three carbons giving two isomers), and
the
butanols (four carbons, four isomers)
are all commonly found alcohols, and none of these three should
ever be consumed in any form. Alcohols are
toxicated into the corresponding
aldehydes and then into the corresponding
carboxylic acids. These metabolic products
cause a poisoning and
acidosis. In the case
of other alcohols than ethanol, the aldehydes and carboxylic acids
are poisonous and the acidosis can be lethal. In contrast,
fatalities from ethanol are mainly found in extreme doses and
related to induction of unconsciousness or chronic addiction
(alcoholism).
The raw materials of alcoholic beverages
The names of some beverages are determined by the source of the
material fermented. In general, a beverage fermented from a
starch-heavy source (grain or potato), in which the starch must
first be broken down into sugars (by
malting,
for example), will be called a
beer; if the
mash is distilled, the end product is a
spirit.
Wine is made
from fermented grapes.
Brandy and wine are made only from grapes. If an alcoholic beverage
is made from another kind of fruit, it is distinguished as
fruit brandy or fruit wine. The variety
of fruit must be specified, as (for example) "cherry brandy" or
"plum wine".
In the USA and Canada,
cider often means
unfermented apple juice (see the article on
cider), while fermented cider is called
hard
cider. Unfermented cider is sometimes called
sweet cider.
In the UK,
cider refers to the alcoholic drink; in
Australia the term is ambiguous.
Beer is generally made from barley, but can sometimes
contain a mix of other grains.
Whisky (or whiskey) is
sometimes made from a blend of different grains, especially
Irish whiskey which may contain
several different grains. The style of whisk(e)y (Scotch, rye,
Bourbon, corn) generally determines the primary grain used, with
additional grains usually added to the blend (most often barley,
and sometimes
oats). As far as American whiskey
is concerned, Bourbon (corn), and rye whiskey, must be at least 51%
of respective constituent at fermentation, while corn whiskey (as
opposed to Bourbon) must be at least 81%—all by American law
similar to the French A.O.C (
Appellation d'Origine
Controlée).
Two common distilled beverages are
vodka and
gin. Vodka can be distilled from any source of
agricultural origin (
grain and
potatoes being the most common), but the main
characteristic of vodka is that it is so thoroughly distilled as to
exhibit less of the flavors derived from its source material. Some
distillers and experts, however, may disagree, arguing that potato
vodkas display a creamy
mouthfeel, while
rye vodkas will have heavy nuances of rye. Other vodkas may display
citrus notes. Gin is a similar distillate which has been flavored
by contact with herbs and other plant products—especially
juniper berries, but also including angel
root, licorice, cardamom, grains of paradise, Bulgarian rose
petals, and many others.
Applejack is an example of a
drink originally made by
freeze
distillation, which is easy to do in cold climates. Although
both distillation and freeze distillation reduce the water content,
they are not equivalent, because freeze distillation concentrates
poisonous higher alcohols rather than reducing them like
distillation.
Ingredients
Grains
| Source |
Name of fermented beverage |
Name of distilled beverage |
| barley |
beer, ale, barley wine |
Scotch whisky, Irish whiskey, shōchū (Japan) |
| rye |
rye beer, kvass |
rye whiskey, vodka (Poland), roggenkorn
(Germany) |
| corn |
chicha, corn beer,
tesguino |
Bourbon whiskey; and vodka (rarely) |
| sorghum |
burukutu (Nigeria), pito (Ghana), merisa (southern
Sudan), bilibili (Chad, Central African
Republic, Cameroon) |
maotai, gaoliang,
certain other types of baijiu (China). |
| wheat |
wheat beer |
vodka, wheat whisky,
weizenkorn (Germany) |
| rice |
Ruou gao (Vietnam), huangjiu, choujiu (China),
sake (Japan), sonti
(India), makgeolli (Korea), tuak (Borneo Island), thwon
(Nepal) |
rice baijiu (China), shōchū and awamori (Japan), soju
(Korea) |
| millet |
millet beer (Sub-Saharan Africa),
tongba (Nepal, Tibet) |
| buckwheat |
|
shōchū
(Japan) |
Juice of fruits
| Source |
Name of fermented beverage |
Name of distilled beverage |
| juice of grapes, |
wine |
brandy, Cognac (France), Vermouth, Armagnac
(France), Branntwein (Germany), pisco (Chile
and Peru), Rakia (The Balkans, Turkey),
singani (Bolivia), Arak
(Syria, Lebanon, Jordan), törkölypálinka (Hungary) |
| juice of apples |
cider (U.S.: "hard cider"), apfelwein |
applejack (or apple
brandy), calvados, cider |
| juice of pears |
perry, or pear cider; poire (France) |
Poire Williams, pear brandy,
Eau-de-vie (France), pálinka (Hungary) |
| juice of plums |
plum wine |
slivovitz, tzuica, palinca, umeshu, pálinka |
| juice of pineapples |
tepache (Mexico) |
|
| bananas or plantains |
Chuoi hot (Vietnam), urgwagwa (Uganda, Rwanda), mbege (with millet malt; Tanzania), kasikisi (with sorghum malt; Democratic Republic of
the Congo) |
| gouqi |
gouqi jiu (China) |
gouqi jiu (China) |
| coconut |
arrack, lambanog (Sri Lanka, India,
Philippines) |
Old arrack, Special, (Sri
Lanka) |
| ginger with sugar, ginger with
raisins |
ginger ale, ginger beer, ginger
wine |
| Myrica rubra |
yangmei jiu (China) |
yangmei jiu (China) |
| pomace |
pomace wine |
Raki/Ouzo/Pastis/Sambuca
(Turkey/Greece/France/Italy), tsipouro/tsikoudia
(Greece), grappa (Italy), Trester (Germany), marc
(France), zivania (Cyprus), aguardente (Portugal), tescovină (Romania), Arak (Iraq) |
Vegetables
| Source |
Name of fermented beverage |
Name of distilled beverage |
| juice of ginger root |
ginger beer (Botswana) |
|
| potatoes or grain |
potato beer |
vodka: Potatoes are
mostly used in Poland and Germany, otherwise grain or potatoes. A strong drink
called akvavit, popular in Scandinavia, is
made from potatoes or grain. In Ireland , poitín (or poteen) is a
traditional liquor made from potatoes, which was illegal from 1661
to 1997. |
| sweet potato |
|
shōchū
(Japan), soju (Korea) |
| cassava/manioc/yuca |
nihamanchi (South America), kasiri (Sub-Saharan Africa), chicha (Ecuador) |
|
| juice of sugarcane, or molasses |
basi, betsa-betsa (regional) |
rum (Caribbean), pinga
or cachaça (Brasil), aguardiente, guaro |
| juice of agave |
pulque |
tequila, mezcal,
raicilla |
Other
See also
References
- Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine’s New Encyclopedia of Wines
& Spirits (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987),
707–709.
- [1]
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6435343.stm
- Meyer, Jerold S. and Linda F. Quenzer. Psychopharmacology:
Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior. Sinauer Associates, Inc:
Sunderland, Massachusettes. 2005. Page 228.
- [2]
- Grattan, K.E. and Vogel-Sprott. Maintaining intentional control of behavior under
alcohol. Alcoholism, clinical and experimental
research. 2001 Feb;25(2):192–197.
- Marlatt, G. A. and Rosenow. “The think-drink effect”.
Psychology Today, 1981, 15, 60-93.
- MacAndrew, C. and Edgerton. Drunken Comportment: A Social
Explanation. Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
- Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004
- Gewalt durch Alkohol. die junge Seite der
Bundesregierung, 5 December 2008 . Accessed 15 July 2009.
- .
- LBK nr 1020 af 21/10/2008 (Danish)
- TTBGov General Alcohol FAQs
- Calgary Herald. "Last call for happy hour". Calgary Herald,
August 1, 2008. Accessed 15 July 2009.
- Ahmad Y
Hassan, Technology Transfer in the Chemical
Industries
-
http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/reprint/28/4/570.pdf
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