- Ascetic redirects here. You might also be looking
for acetic acid. The term
should not be confused with aestheticism.
Asceticism (from the ,
áskēsis,
"exercise" or "training" in the sense of
athletic training) describes a lifestyle
characterized by
abstinence from various
sorts of worldly pleasures (especially sexual activity and
consumption of alcohol) often with the aim of pursuing religious
and
spiritual goals.
Christianity and the
Indian religions (including
yoga) teach that salvation and liberation involve a
process of mind-body transformation effected by exercising
restraint with respect to actions of body, speech, and mind. The
founders and earliest practitioners of these religions (e.g.
Buddhism,
Jainism,
the Christian
desert fathers) lived
extremely austere lifestyles refraining from sensual pleasures and
the accumulation of material wealth. This is to be understood not
as an eschewal of the enjoyment of life but a recognition that
spiritual and religious goals are impeded by such indulgence.
Asceticism is closely related to the Christian concept of
chastity and might be said to be the technical
implementation of the abstract vows of renunciation. Those who
practice ascetic lifestyles do not consider their practices
virtuous in themselves but pursue such a lifestyle in order to
encourage, or 'prepare the ground' for, mind-body
transformation.
In the popular imagination, asceticism may be considered obsessive
or even masochistic in nature (e.g., self-flagellation by birch
twigs as the archetypal stereotype of self-mortification). However,
the
askēsis enjoined by religion functions in order to
bring about greater freedom in various areas of one's life (such as
freedom from compulsions and temptations) and greater peacefulness
of mind (with a concomitant increase in clarity and power of
thought).
Etymology
The adjective "ascetic" derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis (practice, training or exercise). Originally associated with any form of disciplined practice, the term ascetic has come to mean anyone who practices a renunciation of worldly pursuits to achieve higher intellectual and spiritual goals.
Askesis is a Greek Christian term; the practice of
spiritual exercises; rooted in the philosophical tradition of
antiquity. Originally introduced as the spiritual struggle of the
Greek Orthodox Church as the
style of life where
meat,
alcohol,
sex, and comfortable
clothing are avoided, the term is now used
in several other relations.
Sociological and Psychological Views
Early 20th century German sociologist
Max
Weber made a distinction between
innerweltliche and
ausserweltliche asceticism, which means (roughly) "inside
the world" and "outside the world", respectively.
Talcott Parsons translated these as
"worldly" and "otherworldly" (some translators use "inner-worldly",
but that has a different connotation in English and is probably not
what Weber had in mind).
"Otherworldly" asceticism is practiced by people who withdraw from
the world in order to live an ascetic life (this includes
monks who live communally in
monasteries, as well as
hermits who live alone). "Worldly" asceticism refers
to people who live ascetic lives but don't withdraw from the
world.
Weber claimed that this distinction originated in the
Protestant Reformation, but later
became secularized, so the concept can be applied to both religious
and secular ascetics.
(See Talcott Parsons' translation of
The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, translator's note on
Weber's footnote 9 in chapter 2)
20th century American psychological theorist
David McClelland suggested that worldly
asceticism is specifically targeted against worldly pleasures that
distract people from their calling, and may accept worldly
pleasures that are not distracting. As an example, he pointed out
that
Quakers have historically objected to
bright colored clothing, but that wealthy Quakers often made their
drab clothing out of expensive materials. The color was considered
distracting, but the materials were not.
Amish
groups use similar criteria to make decisions about which modern
technologies to use and which to avoid.
Religious motivation
Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree is a part of
religious practice within many religious and spiritual traditions.
A more dedicated ascetical lifestyle is associated particularly
with
monks,
yogi or
priests, but any individual may choose to
lead an ascetic life.
Shakyamuni
Gautama (who left a more severe ascetism to seek a reasoned
"middle way" of balanced life),
Mahavir
Swami,
Anthony the Great (St.
Anthony of the Desert),
Francis of
Assisi, and
Mahatma Gandhi can
all be considered ascetics. Many of these men left their families,
possessions, and homes to live a
mendicant
life, and in the eyes of their followers demonstrated great
spiritual attainment, or
enlightenment.
Hinduism
Sadhus, but believed to be holy, are known for
the extreme forms of self-denial they occasionally practice. These
include extreme acts of devotion to a deity or principle, such as
vowing never to use one leg or the other, or to hold an arm in the
air for a period of months or years. The particular types of
asceticism involved vary from sect to sect, and from holy man to
holy man.
The Rig Veda describes non-Vedic Kesins (
long-haired
ascetics) and Munis (
silent ones). The Kesins are
described as friends of Vayu, Rudra, the Gandharvas and the
Apsaras. There is also another story in the Rig Veda that
Dhruva the son of Uttanapada (the son of Manu)
performs penance, making him "
one with Brahma."
Sanyasa is one of the four stages of life in
Hinduism.
The term "
tapas" is used in the
Rig Veda to connote the burning of desires.
Keeping silence, even in times of verbal abuse was practiced by
Hindu ascetics.
Yajnavalkya also describes Brahmans as "Bhiksacaryas."
Jainism
Asceticism, in one of its most intense forms, can be found in one
of the oldest religions known as
Jainism.
Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult
postures, and other austerities. According to Jains, one's highest
goal should be
Moksha (i.e., liberation from
samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth).
For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self indulgence.
This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great
vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession
and of celibacy.Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can
be traced back to Vardhaman
Mahavira, the
twenty-fourth "fordmaker" or
Tirthankara. The
Acaranga Sutra, or Book of Good Conduct, is a
sacred book within Jainism that discusses the ascetic code of
conduct. Other texts that provide insight into conduct of ascetics
include Yogashastra by Acharya
Hemachandra and Niyamasara by Acharya
Kundakunda. Other illustrious Jain works on
ascetic conduct are
Oghanijjutti, Pindanijjutti, Cheda Sutta,
and Nisiha Suttafee.
Ascetic vows
As per the Jain vows, the monks and nuns renounce all relations and
possessions. Jain ascetics practice complete non-violence.
Ahimsa is the first and
foremost vow of a Jain ascetic. They do not hurt any living being,
be it an insect or a human. They carry a special broom to sweep any
insects that may cross their path. Some Jains monks wear a cloth
over the mouth to prevent accidental harm to airborne germs and
insects. They also do not use electricity as it involves violence.
Furthermore, they do not use any devices or machines.
As they are possession less and without any attachment, they travel
from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always
barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than
two months to prevent attachment to any place. However, during four
months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas, they continue
to stay at a single place to avoid their killing life forms that
thrive during the rains.Jain monks and nuns practice complete
celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a
person of opposite sex.
Dietary practices
Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root
vegetables.
Shvetambara monks do not
cook food but solicit alms from householders.
Digambara monks have only a single meal a day.
Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a
meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind
and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the
prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains
standing and eats only a measured amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence
from food and sometimes water) is a routine feature of Jain
asceticism. Fasts last for a day or longer, up to a month. Some
monks avoid (or limit) medicine and/or hospitalisation out of
disregard for the physical body.
Austerities and other daily practices
White-clothed Acharya Kalaka
Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture
near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and
mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such
austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental
limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost)
completely without possessions. Some Jains (Shvetambara monks and
nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment)
and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara
monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a
soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from
their hands. They sleep on the floor without blankets and sit on
special wooden platforms.
Every day is spent either in study of scriptures or meditation or
teaching to lay people. They stand aloof from worldly matters. Many
Jain ascetics take a final vow of Santhara or Sallekhana (i.e., a
peaceful and detached death where medicines, food, and water are
abandoned). This is done when death is imminent or when a monk
feels that he is unable to adhere to his vows on account of
advanced age or terminal disease.
Quotes on ascetic practices from the Akaranga Sutra as
Hermann Jacobi translated it
[12588]:
“A monk or a nun wandering from village to village
should look forward for four cubits, and seeing animals they should
move on by walking on his toes or heels or the sides of his feet.
If there be some bypath, they should choose it, and not go straight
on; then they may circumspectly wander from village to
village.Third Lecture(6)”
'I shall become a Sramana who owns no house, no
property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I
shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept
anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a
mendicant) should not, on entering a village or scot-free town,
&c., take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to
take, what has not been given.Seventh Lecture (1)
Buddhism
Theravada
The historical
Siddhartha Gautama
adopted an extreme ascetic life after leaving his father's palace,
where he once lived in extreme luxury. But later the Shakyamuni
rejected extreme asceticism because it is an impediment to ultimate
freedom (
nirvana) from suffering (
samsara), choosing instead a path that met the needs
of the body without crossing over into luxury and indulgence. After
abandoning extreme asceticism he was able to achieve
enlightenment. This position became known as the
Madhyamaka or Middle Way, and became one
of the central organizing principles of
Theravadin philosophy.
The degree of moderation suggested by this middle path varies
depending on the interpretation of
Theravadism at hand. Some traditions emphasize
ascetic life more than others.
The basic lifestyle of an ordained Theravadin practitioner
(
bhikkhu, monk; or
bhikkhuni, nun) as described in the
Vinaya Pitaka was intended to be neither excessively
austere nor hedonistic. Monks and nuns were intended to have enough
of life's basic requisites (particularly food, water, clothing, and
shelter) to live safely and healthily, without being troubled by
illness or weakness. While the life described in the Vinaya may
appear difficult, it would be perhaps better described as
Spartan rather than truly ascetic.
Deprivation for its own sake is not valued. Indeed, it may be seen
as a sign of attachment to one's own renunciation. The aim of the
monastic lifestyle was to prevent concern for the material
circumstances of life from intruding on the monk or nun's ability
to engage in religious practice. To this end, having inadequate
possessions was regarded as being no more desirable than having too
many.
Initially, the Tathagatta rejected a number of more specific
ascetic practices that some monks requested to follow. These
practices — such as sleeping in the open, dwelling in a cemetery or
cremation ground, wearing only cast-off rags, etc. — were initially
seen as too extreme, being liable to either upset the social values
of the surrounding community, or as likely to create schisms among
the
Sangha by encouraging monks to compete in
austerity. Despite their early prohibition, recorded in the
Pali Canon, these practices (known as the
Dhutanga practices, or in
Thai as
thudong) eventually became
acceptable to the monastic community. They were recorded by
Buddhaghosa in his
Visuddhimagga, and later became significant in
the practices of the
Thai Forest
Tradition.
Mahayana
The
Mahayana traditions of Buddhism
received a slightly different code of discipline than that used by
the various
Theravada sects. This fact,
combined with significant regional and cultural variations, has
resulted in differing attitudes towards asceticism in different
areas of the Mahayana world.
Particularly notable is the role that
vegetarianism plays in East Asian Buddhism, particularly in China
and Japan
.
While Theravada monks are compelled to eat whatever is provided for
them by their lay supporters, including meat, Mahayana monks in
East of Asia are most often vegetarian. This is attributable to a
number of factors, including Mahayana-specific teachings regarding
vegetarianism, East Asian cultural tendencies that predate the
introduction of Buddhism (some of which may have their roots in
Confucianism), and the different manner
in which monks support themselves in East Asia. While Southeast
Asian and Sri Lankan monks generally continue to make daily begging
rounds to receive their daily meal, monks in East Asia more
commonly receive bulk foodstuffs from lay supporters (or the funds
to purchase them) and are fed from a kitchen located on the site of
the temple or monastery, and staffed either by working monks or by
lay supporters.
Similarly, divergent scriptural and cultural trends have brought a
stronger emphasis on asceticism to some Mahayana practices. The
Lotus Sutra, for instance, contains a
story of a
bodhisattva who burns himself
as an offering to the assembly of all
Buddhas in the world. This has become a patterning
story for self-sacrifice in the Mahayana world, probably providing
the inspiration for the auto-cremation of the Vietnamese monk
Thich Quang Duc during the 1960s, as
well as several other incidents.
Judaism
The history of
Jewish asceticism goes back
thousands of years to the references of the
Nazirite (Numbers 6) and the Wilderness Tradition
that evolved out of the forty years in the desert. The prophets and
their disciples were ascetic to the extreme including many examples
of fasting and hermitic living conditions. After the Jews returned
from the
Babylonian exile and the
prophetic institution was done away with a different form of
asceticism arose when
Antiochus IV
Epiphanes threatened the Jewish religion in 167 BCE. The Hassidean
sect attracted observant Jews to its fold and they lived as holy
warriors in the wilderness during the war against the
Seleucid Empire. With the rise of the
Hasmoneans and finally Jonathan's claim to the
High Priesthood in 152 BCE, the
Essene sect
separated under the Teacher of Righteousness and they took the
banner of asceticism for the next two hundred years culminating in
the Dead Sea Sect.
Asceticism is rejected by modern day Judaism; it is considered
contrary to God's wishes for the world. God intended the world to
be enjoyed, in a permitted context of course.
However, Judaism does not encourage people to seek pleasure for its
own sake but rather to do so in a spiritual way. An example would
be thanking God for creating something enjoyable, like a wonderful
view, or tasty food. As another example, sex should be enjoyed
while remembering that a person may be fulfilling the commandments
of marriage and pru-urvu (procreation), but that it should also be
enjoyed. Food can be enjoyed by remembering that it is necessary to
eat, but by thanking God for making it an enjoyable processes, and
by not overeating, or eating wastefully.
Modern normative Judaism is in opposition to the lifestyle of
asceticism, and sometimes cast the
Nazirite
vow in a critical light. There did existed some ascetic Jewish
sects in ancient times, most notably the
Essenes and
Ebionites. Some
early
Kabbalists may have, arguably, also
held a lifestyle that could be regarded as ascetic.
Christianity
Different religious groups within Christianity have differing views
on the subject of asceticism; the
Catholic Church, as well as the
Eastern Orthodox churches,
Oriental Orthodox churches, and some
Anglican churches, all see value in asceticism, while most of the
Protestant denominations view asceticism generally in a negative
light (an exception would be the practice of
fasting). One Christian context of asceticism is the
liturgical season of
Lent, the period between
Ash Wednesday and
Good Friday, leading up to
Easter. During this season Catholics are counseled to
practice prayer, fasting, especially on Fridays and special
holy day, and charitable giving. Many
other Christians also practice these traditional Lenten
disciplines.
In the Christian
Gospels, both the practice
of asceticism, and also the enjoyment of the good things of the
world are depicted, which seem to each have their proper time and
place.
John the Baptist, forerunner
to Jesus, is depicted as a desert ascetic according to the image of
an
Old Testament Prophet "Clothed in
camel's hair, with a leather belt around his waist. He fed on
locusts and wild honey" (Mk 1:6).
Jesus also
is depicted as spending 40 days fasting in the desert and
experiencing temptations prior to the beginning of his ministry (Lk
4 1-13). Later, Jesus is frequently depicted sharing and enjoying
food and drink with his followers and others, including publicly
known sinners, to the scandal of some people. Jesus' followers ask
him about this: "They said to him, 'John's disciples often fast and
pray, and so do the disciples of the
Pharisees, but yours go on eating and drinking.'
Jesus answered, 'Can you make the guests of the bridegroom fast
while he is with them? But the time will come when the bridegroom
will be taken from them; in those days they will fast'" (Lk
5:33-35). This has most often been interpreted to mean that after
Jesus' death his followers will practice fasting, at least
sometimes.
Catholic and Orthodox Christians have strongly tended to view
Christian fasting, chastity and other ascetic practice as oriented
toward desire and love for Christ (the "bridegroom" of the Church,
still really present, these traditions believe, in the
Eucharist) over and above all other things, even
though the entire creation is affirmed as good. In Catholic
spiritual theology this is
expressed as an inseparable relationship between ascetical and
mystical theology, as if the human
and divine dimensions of living the Christian spiritual life of
incarnate divine love, for instance as described by St.
John of the Cross.
Protestant Christians vary widely in
their attitudes toward and practices of asceticism. The
Protestant reformers often strongly
criticized
monasticism and Catholic
ascetical practices, contrasting these human works through which
people participate in working out their salvation, with "
faith alone" in Jesus as savior. Some
Protestants are vehement about this to the point of rejecting the
whole idea of asceticism, citing St. Paul's teaching in his epistle
to the Romans that justification is by faith in Jesus rather than
by works such as adherence to Jewish law, or similarly in 1 Timothy
4:2-3 speaks against those who would turn Christians away from true
faith by imposing unnecessary religious rules: "liars with branded
consciences.... forbid marriage and require abstinence from foods
that God required to be received with thanksgiving by those who
believe and know the truth." However, many Protestants embrace
"spiritual disciplines" such as fasting and disciplined dedication
to prayer as a positive and Biblically-based means of growth in the
Christian life. The
Lutheran Church
encourages fasting during Lent, similar to the Roman Catholic
teaching. Individuals in mainline
Pentecostal denominations undertake both short
and extended fasts as they believe the Holy Spirit leads them. For
Charismatic Christians fasting
is undertaken at the leading of God. Fasting is done in order to
seek a closer intimacy with God, as well as an act of petition.
Holiness movements, such as those
started by
John and
Charles Wesley, and
George Whitefield in the early days of
Methodism, often practice such regular
fasts as part of their regimen.
Saint Paul speaks of his own asceticism
in his New Testament epistles, and also offers some nuance about
true and false asceticism. For instance he writes of disciplining
his body like an athlete, in order to subordinate it to reason in
the service of the Gospel: "Athletes deny themselves all sorts of
things. They do this to win a crown of leaves that wither, but we a
crown that is imperishable" Cor 9:25.
Asceticism within Catholic tradition includes spiritual disciplines
practiced to work out the believer's
salvation, and express one's
repentance for
sin, with the
ultimate aim of purifying the heart and mind, by God's
grace, for encounter with the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, (see
Kenosis). Although certain
monks
and
nuns today such as those in the
Roman Catholic religious orders of the
Carthusians, and
Cistercians, are known for especially strict
acts of asceticism, even more rigorous ascetic practices were
common in the early Church.
The deserts of the middle-east were at one time said to have been
inhabited by thousands of hermits, amongst
those them St. Anthony the Great
(aka St. Anthony of the Desert), St. Mary
of Egypt, and a particularly unusual example is St. Simeon Stylites
.
Christian authors of late antiquity such as
Origen,
Jerome,
John Chrysostom, and
Augustine interpreted meanings of
Biblical texts within a highly asceticized
religious environment. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be
found in the lives of
John the
Baptist,
Jesus, the
twelve apostles and
Saint Paul. The
Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices
of the ancient Jewish sect of
Essenes who
took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. Thus, the
asceticism of practitioners like Jerome was hardly original
(although some of his critics thought it was), and a desert ascetic
like Antony the Great (251-356 CE) was in the tradition of ascetics
in noted communities and sects of the previous centuries. Clearly,
emphasis on an ascetic religious life was evident in both early
Christian writings (see the
Philokalia)
and practices (see
hesychasm).
Other
Christian followers of asceticism include individuals such as
Simeon
Stylites, Saint David of Wales, and Francis of Assisi. (See
The
Catholic Encyclopedia for a fuller discussion.)To the
uninformed modern reader, early monastic asceticism may seem to be
only about
sexual renunciation. However,
sexual abstinence was merely one aspect of ascetic renunciation.
The ancient monks and nuns had other, equally weighty concerns:
pride, humility,
compassion, discernment, patience, judging
others,
prayer,
hospitality, and
almsgiving.
For some early Christians, gluttony represented a more primordial
problem than
lust, and as such the reduced
intake of
food is also a facet of asceticism.
As an illustration, the systematic collection of the
Apophthegmata Patrum, or Sayings
of the desert fathers and mothers has more than twenty chapters
divided by theme; only one chapter is devoted to
porneia
("sexual lust"). (See Elizabeth A. Clark.
Reading Renunciation:
Asceticism and Scripture in Early Christianity. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1999.)
Nowadays, the monastic state of
Mount
Athos, having a history of over a millennium, is a center of
Christian spirituality and asceticism in
Eastern Orthodox tradition.
Islam
The Islamic word for asceticism is
zuhd.
Muhammad is quoted to have said, "What have I to do with worldly
things? My connection with the world is like that of a traveler
resting for a while underneath the shade of a tree and then moving
on."He advised the people to live simple lives and himself
practiced great austerities. Even when he had become the virtual
king of Arabia, he lived an austere life bordering on privation.
His wife Ayesha said that there was hardly a day in his life when
he had two square meals (Muslim, Sahih Muslim, Vol.2, pg 198)
taken from--
"Asceticism is not that you should not own anything, but that
nothing should own you." -Ali ibn Abi Talib
Sufism
Sufism evolved not as a mystical but as an
ascetic movement, as even the name suggests; the word
Sufi
may refer to a rough woolen robe of the ascetic. A natural bridge
from asceticism to mysticism has often been crossed by Muslim
ascetics. Through meditation on the Qur'an and praying to Allah,
the Muslim ascetic believes that he draws near to Allah, and by
leading an ascetic life paves the way for absorption in Allah, the
Sufi way to salvation.(See Alfred Braunthal.
Salvation and the
Perfect Society. University of Massachusetts Press,
1979.)
Zoroastrianism
In
Zoroastrianism, active
participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good
deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at
bay. This
active participation is a central element in
Zoroaster's concept of
free will, and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of
asceticism and
monasticism.
Secular motivation
Examples of secular asceticism:
- A Starving Artist is someone who
minimizes their living expenses in order to spend more time and
effort on their art.
- Many professional athletes abstain from sex, rich foods, and
other pleasures before major competitions in order to mentally
prepare themselves for the upcoming contest.
- Straight Edge people abstain from
alcohol, tobacco, drugs, and casual sex as part of a sub-culture
lifestyle choice.
- Many revolutionaries have also adopted asceticism, among the
most important being Stalin and Adolf Hitler; Hitler was known throughout his
life for abstemiousness and an aloof, though not asexual, attitude
to women. Stalin lived in one room, having
only tobacco tub as a pleasure.
Religious versus secular motivation
The observation of an ascetic lifestyle can be found in both
religious and secular settings. For example, practices based on a
religious motivation might include fasting, abstention from sex,
and other forms of self-denial intended to increase religious
awareness or attain a closer relationship with the divine.
Non-religious (or not specifically religious)
practices might be seen in such an example as Spartans
undertaking
regimens of severe physical discipline to prepare for
battle.
Critics
In the third essay ("What Do Ascetic Ideals Mean?"
[12589]) from his book
On the Genealogy of Morals,
Friedrich Nietzsche discusses
what he terms the "ascetic ideal" and its role in the formulation
of morality along with the history of the will. In the essay,
Nietzsche describes how such a paradoxical action as asceticism
might serve the interests of life: through asceticism one can
attain mastery over oneself. In this way one can express both
ressentiment and
the will to power. Nietzsche describes the
morality of the ascetic priest as characterized by
Christianity as one where, finding oneself in
pain, one places the blame for the pain on oneself and thereby
attempts and attains mastery over the world, a technique which
Nietzsche locates at the very origin of secular science as well as
of religion.
See also
References
- McClelland, The Achieving Society, 1961
- Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical
Asceticism - Yatidharmasamuccaya of Yadava Prakasa/
Translated by Patrick Olivelle (Sri Satguru Publications/ Delhi) is
a must-read book in this context.
- P. 77 An Introduction to Hinduism By Gavin D.
Flood
- P. 137 The Rig Veda By Wendy Doniger, Wendy Doniger
O'Flaherty
- P. 377 Classical Hinduism By Mariasusai Dhavamony
- P. 460 Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and
Ecclesiastical Literature By John McClintock, James
Strong
- P. 34 India and the Greek world: a study in the
transmission of culture By Jean W. Sedlar
- P. 134 The rule of Saint Benedict and the ascetic
traditions from Asia to the West By Mayeul de Dreuille
- Frank William Iklé et al. "A History of Asia", page ?. Allyn
and Bacon, 1964
- Hermann Jacobi, "Sacred Books of the East", vol. 22: Gaina
Sutras Part I. 1884
-
http://www.aish.com/literacy/judaism123/Five_Levels_of_Pleasure.asp
- USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
- The final sentence of the book puts it like this: "For man
would rather will even nothingness than 'not will.'" (Kaufmann's
trans.)
Bibliography
- Valantasis, Richard. The Making of the Self: Ancient and
Modern Asceticism. James Clarke & Co (2008) ISBN
9780227172810.[12590]
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