Black British is a term which has had different
meanings and uses as a racial and political label. Historically it
has been used to refer to any non-
white
British national. The term was
first used at the end of the
British
Empire, when several major colonies formally gained
independence and thereby created a new form of
national identity. The term was at that
time (1950s) used mainly to describe those from the former colonies
of
Africa, and
the Caribbean, i.e. the
New Commonwealth. In some circumstances the
word "Black" still signifies all
ethnic
minority populations.
More
recently it has come to define a British
resident
with specifically Sub-Saharan
African ancestral origins, who self-identifies, or is
identified, as "Black", African or Afro-Caribbean.
Black British is used as a category in UK national statistics
ethnicity
classifications, where it is sub-divided into Caribbean,
African and Other Black groups.
Use of term
Historically, the term has most commonly been used to refer to
those of
New Commonwealth origin.
For example,
Southall Black
Sisters was established in 1979 "to meet the needs of black
(Asian and Afro-Caribbean) women". (Note that
"Asian" in the British context means from
South Asia only.) "Black" was used in
this inclusive political sense to mean "not
white British" - the main groups in the 1970s
were from the
British West
Indies and the
Indian
subcontinent, but solidarity against racism extended the term
to the
Irish population of
Britain as well. Several organisations continue to use the term
inclusively, such as the Black Arts Alliance, who extend their use
of the term to
Latin America and all
refugees, and the
National Black Police
Association. This is unlike the official
British Census definition which
adheres to the clear distinction between "British South Asians" and
"British Blacks". Note that because of the
Indian diaspora and especially
Idi Amin's expulsion of
Asians from Uganda in 1972, many
British Asians come from families that have
spent several generations in the
British West Indies or
East Africa, so not everyone born in, or with
roots in, the Caribbean or Africa can be assumed to be "black" in
the exclusive sense;
Lord
Alli is a good example.
Historical usage: Sierra Leone
Black British was also an
identity of Black people in Sierra Leone
(known as the Krio) who considered themselves
British. They
are generally the descendants of black people who lived in England
in the 18th century and freed Black American slaves who fought for
the Crown in the
American
Revolutionary War (see also
Black
Loyalists). In 1787, hundreds of London's
Black poor (a
category which included the
East Indian
seamen known as
lascars) agreed to go to
this West African country on the condition that they would retain
the status of
British subjects, to
live in freedom under the protection of the
British Crown and be defended by the
Royal Navy. Making this fresh start with them
were many white people, including girlfriends, wives and widows of
the black men.
History
16th century
Early in the 16th century Africans arrived in London when
Catherine of Aragon travelled to London
and brought a group of her African attendants with her . When trade
lines began to open between London and West Africa, Africans slowly
began to become part of the London population. The first record of
an African in London was in 1593. His name was Cornelius. London’s
residents started to become fearful of the increased black
population. At this time
Elizabeth I declared that black
"Negroes and black
Moors" were to be arrested
and expelled from her kingdom.
17th-18th centuries
During this era there was a rise of black settlements in London.
Britain was involved with the
tri-continental slave trade between
Europe, Africa and the Americas. Black slaves were attendants to
sea captains and ex-colonial officials as well as traders,
plantation owners and military personnel. This marked growing
evidence of the black presence in the northern, eastern and
southern areas of London. There were also small numbers of free
slaves and seaman from West Africa and South Asia. Many of these
people were forced into beggary due to the lack of jobs and racial
discrimination.
The
involvement of merchants from the British Isles
in the transatlantic slave trade was the
most important factor in the development of the Black British
community. These communities flourished in port cities
strongly involved in the slave trade, such as Liverpool
(from 1730) and Bristol
. As a
result, Liverpool is home to Britain's oldest
Black community, dating to at least the 1730s,
and some Black Liverpudlians are able to trace their ancestors in
the city back ten generations. Early Black settlers in the city
included seamen, the children of traders sent to be educated, and
freed slaves, since slaves entering the country after 1722 were
deemed free men.
The
legality of slavery in England
had been
questioned following the Cartwright decision of 1569, when it was
"resolved that England was too pure an air for a slave to breathe
in." From the early eighteenth century, there are records of
slave sales and various attempts to capture Africans described as
escaped slaves.
The issue was not legally contested until the
Somerset case of 1772, which
concerned James Somersett, a fugitive black slave from Virginia
.
Chief Justice
Mansfield (whose own presumed great-niece
Dido was of mixed race) concluded that
Somersett could not be forced to leave England against his will.
(See generally,
Slavery at common
law.)
Around the 1750s London became the home of many of Blacks, Jews,
Irish, Germans, and
Huguenots. By the
middle of the eighteenth century Blacks comprised somewhere between
one and three percent of the London populace. Evidence of the
number of Black residents in London has been found through
registered burials. The whites of London had widespread views that
Black people in London were less than human; these views were
expressed in slave sale advertisements. Some Black people in London
resisted through escape . Leading Black activists of this era
included
Olaudah Equiano,
Ignatius Sancho and
Quobna Ottobah Cugoano.
With the support of other Britons these activists demanded that
Blacks be freed from slavery. Supporters involved in this movements
included workers and other nationalities of the urban poor. London
Blacks vocally contested slavery and the slave trade. At this time
the slavery of whites was forbidden, but the legal statuses of
these practices were not clearly defined. Free black slaves could
not be enslaved, but blacks who were bought as slaves to Britain
were considered the property of their owners. During this era
Lord Mansfield declared that a slave
who fled from his master could not be taken by force or sold
abroad. This verdict fueled the numbers of Blacks that escaped
slavery, and helped send slavery into decline. During this same
period many slave soldiers who fought on the side of the British in
the
American Revolutionary
War arrived in London. These soldiers were deprived of pensions
and many of them became poverty-stricken and were reduced to
begging on the streets.
The Blacks in London lived among the whites
in areas of Mile
End
, Stepney
, Paddington
and St. Giles
. The majority of these people did not live
as slaves, but as servants to wealthy whites. Many became labeled
as the "Black Poor" defined as former low wage soldiers, seafarers
and plantation workers.
During the late 1700s there were many publications and memoirs
written about the "black poor". One example is the writings of
Equiano, who became an unofficial spokesman for Britain’s Black
community. A memoir about his life and attributions in Black London
is entitled,
The Interesting Narratives of the Life of Olaudah
Equiano.
The Black
Londoners, encouraged by the Committee for the
Relief of the Black Poor, decided to immigrate to Sierra Leone to found the first British colony in Africa.
They demanded that their status as
British subjects be recognized, along with
the duty of the
Royal Navy to defend
them.
The number of people in the United Kingdom with Black African
origins was relatively small. There were, however, significant
communities of
South Asians, especially
East Indian seamen known as
lascars. In short, the links established through the
British Empire led to increased
population movement and
immigration.
In a
famous case, an Indian Briton, Dadabhai
Naoroji, stood for election to parliament
for the Liberal
Party in 1886. He was defeated, leading the
leader of the Conservative
Party,
Lord
Salisbury to remark that "however great the progress of mankind
has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudice,
I doubt if we have yet got to the point of view where a British
constituency would elect a black man". This led to much discussion
about the applicability of the term "black" to South Asians.
Naoroji was subsequently elected to parliament in 1892, becoming
the first
Member of Parliament
(MP) of Indian descent.
19th century
Coming into the early 19th century, more groups of black soldiers
and seaman were displaced after the
Napoleonic wars and settled in London. These
settlers suffered and faced many challenges as did many Black
Londoners. In 1807 the British slave trade was abolished and the
slave trade was abolished completely in the British empire by 1834.
The number of blacks in London was steadily declining with these
new laws. Fewer blacks were brought into London from the West
Indies and parts of Africa.
The nineteenth century was also a time when "
scientific racism" flourished. Many white
Londoners claimed that they were the superior race and that blacks
were not as intelligent as whites. They tried to hold up their
accounts with scientific evidence, for example the size of the
brain. Such claims were later proven false, but this was just one
more obstacle for the blacks in London to hurdle over. The late
19th century effectively ended the first period of large scale
black immigration to London and Britain. This decline in
immigration gave way to the gradual incorporation of blacks and
their descendents into this predominantly white society.
During the mid-19th century there were restrictions on African
immigration.
In the later part of the 19th century there
was a build up of small groups of black dockside communities in
towns such as Canning
Town
, Liverpool, and Cardiff
. This was a direct effect of new shipping
links that were established with the Caribbean and West Africa.
Twentieth century
Before
the Second World War, the largest
Black communities were to be found in the United Kingdom's great
port cities: London
's East End
, Liverpool, Bristol and Cardiff's Tiger Bay, with other
communities in South
Shields
in Tyne & Wear
and Glasgow
. The South Shields community (mostly South
Asians and Yemenis
) were victims of the UK's first race riot in 1919. Soon all the other towns
with significant non-white communities were also hit by race riots
which spread across the
Anglo-Saxon
world.
At this time, on Australian insistence, the British refused to
accept the Racial
Equality Proposal put forward by the Japanese
at the Paris Peace Conference,
1919. Australian soldiers were reported to be the
leaders of the attacks on the Black community in Butetown, Cardiff.
World War I
World War I was another growth period
for blacks in London. Their communities grew with the arrival of
merchant seaman and soldiers. At the same time there is also a
continuous presence of small groups of students from Africa and the
Caribbean slowly immigrating into London. These first communities
which housed London’s first black immigrants survive and now are
among the oldest black communities of London.
World War II
World War II marked another growth
period for black immigrants into London and Britain societies. Many
blacks from the Caribbean and West Africa arrive in small groups as
wartime workers, merchant seaman, and servicemen from the army,
navy, and air forces. It is estimated that approximately twenty
thousand black Londoners lived in communities concentrated in the
dock side areas of London, Liverpool and Cardiff. One of these
black Londoners,
Learie
Constantine, who was a welfare officer in the
RAF, was refused service at a London hotel. He stood up
for his rights and later was awarded damages. This particular
example is used by some to illustrate the slow change from racism
towards acceptance and equality of all citizens in London.
It was in the period after the
Second
World War, however, that the largest influx of Black people
occurred, mostly from the
British
West Indies.Over a quarter of a million West Indians, the
overwhelming majority of them from Jamaica, settled in Britain in
less than a decade. In the mid-1960’s Britain had become the centre
of the largest overseas population of West Indians. This migration
event is often labeled "Windrush", a reference to the
Empire Windrush, the ship that carried the
first major group of Caribbean migrants to the United Kingdom in
1948. "Caribbean" is itself not one ethnic or political identity;
for example, some of this wave of immigrants were
Indo-Caribbean.
The most widely used
term then used was "West
Indian
" (or sometimes "coloured"). "Black British"
did not come into widespread use until the second generation were
born to these post-war immigrants to the country. Although British
by nationality, due to friction between them and the white
majority, they were often being born into communities that were
relatively closed, creating the roots of what would become a
distinct Black British identity. By the 1950’s, there was a
consciousness of black people as a separate people that was not
there between 1932 and 1938.
In 1962 the
Commonwealth Immigrants Act
was passed in Britain along with a succession of other laws in
1968,
1971, and
1981 that severely restricted
the entry of Black immigrants into Britain. During this period it
is widely argued that emergent blacks and Asians struggled in
Britain against racism and prejudice.During the 1970’s – and partly
in response to both the rise in racial intolerance and the rise of
the Black Power movement abroad – ‘black’ became detached from its
negative connotations, and was reclaimed as a marker of pride:
black is beautiful.
In 1975 a new voice emerged for the black
London population; his name was David Pitt and he
brought a new voice to the House of Lords
. He spoke against racism and for equality in
regards to all residents of Britain.
With this new tone
also came the opportunity for the black population to elect four
Black members into Parliament.
Since the
1980s, the majority of black immigrants into the country have come
directly from Africa, in particular, Nigeria
and Ghana
in West Africa, Kenya
in East Africa, and Zimbabwe
and South Africa in
Southern Africa. Nigerians
and Ghanaians have been especially quick to accustom themselves to
British life, with young Nigerians and Ghanaians achieving some of
the best results at
GCSE and
A-Level. The rate of
inter-racial marriage between British
citizens born in Africa and native Britons is still fairly low,
compared to those from the Caribbean. This might change over time
as Africans become more part of mainstream
British culture as second and third
generation African communities become established.
By the end of the 1900s the number of black Londoners numbered half
a million, according to the
1991 census. An increasing number
of these black Londoners were London- or British-born. Even with
this growing population and the first blacks elected to Parliament,
many argue that there was still discrimination and a socio-economic
imbalance in London among the Blacks. In 1992 the number of blacks
in Parliament increased to six and in 1997 they increased their
numbers to nine. There are still many problems that Black Londoners
face; the new global and high tech information revolution is
changing the urban economy and some argue that it is driving
unemployment rates among blacks up relative to non-blacks ,
something which, it is argued, threatens to erode the progress made
thus far.
Today the black population of London is 1,001,000 or 13% of the
population of London. 5% of Londoners are Caribbean, 7% of
Londoners are African and a further 1% are from other black
backgrounds including American and Latin American. There are also
113,800 people who are mixed black and white.
Demographics
Population
In the
2001 UK Census, 565,876 people
stated their ethnicity as Black Caribbean, 485,277 as Black African
and 97,585 as Black Other, making a total of 1,148,738 in the
census's Black or Black British category. This was equivalent to 2
per cent of the UK population at the time.
Mid-2007
estimates for England only put the
Black British population there at 1,448,000 compared to 1,158,000
in mid-2001.
Population distribution
Like the
African American community, most
Black Britons can be found in the large cities and metropolitan
areas of the country, there are almost 1 million Black Britons in
London.
According to 2005 estimates, cities with large and significant
Black communities are as follows (
London
boroughs included).
| Large Black British
Communities |
Greater London |
1,100,000 |
| Birmingham Metro Area |
176,700 |
Hackney, East London |
67,104 |
Lambeth, South London |
65,800 |
Southwark, South London |
64,400 |
Lewisham, South London |
63,700 |
Croydon, South London |
55,900 |
Newham, East London |
55,400 |
Brent, North West London |
54,300 |
Haringey, North London |
47,200 |
Waltham Forest, East London |
39,300 |
Greater Manchester |
38,300 |
Redbridge, North East London |
26,200 |
Leeds |
21,000 |
Sheffield |
18,300 |
| Bristol |
16,100 |
Wolverhampton |
16,000 |
Hillingdon, West London |
15,000 |
| Liverpool |
12,200 |
Coventry |
11,800 |
Bradford |
11,000 |
| Sandwell |
14,769 |
|
Areas with pop. over 7 million
Over 1 million
Over 700,000
Over 500,000
Over 400,000
Over 300,000
Over 200,000
|
Over 100,000
|
Over 50,000
Over 10,000
|
Culture
Dialect
Music
Black British music is a long-established and influential part of
British music. Its presence in the
United Kingdom stretches from concert performers like
George Bridgetower in the eighteenth
century to
street musicians like
Billy Waters.
In the
late 1970s and 1980s, 2 Tone became popular
with the British youth, especially in
the West
Midlands
. A blend of
punk,
ska and
pop made it popular with both white and black
audiences. Famous bands include
The
Selecter,
The Specials,
The Beat and
The Bodysnatchers.
Black British music sometimes reflects
Caribbean influences or takes inspiration
from
Black American genres such as
hip hop and
rap. It
has developed its own distinctive identity.
Grime music was invented in London and
involves a number of artists from Black African and Caribbean
communities, most notably Jamaican, Ghanaian and Nigerian. Famous
grime artists include
Dizzee Rascal,
Kano ,
Wiley,
Lethal
Bizzle,
Tinchy Stryder and
Chipmunk. It is now common to hear
British
MCs rapping in a strong London Accent.
Niche, with its origin in
Sheffield and Leeds, has a much faster bassline and is often sung
in a northern accent. Famous Niche artists include producer
T2.
Notable Black Britons
Well-known Black Britons living before the
twentieth century include the Chartist
William Cuffay; William Davidson, executed as
a Cato Street conspirator;
Olaudah Equiano (also called
Gustavus Vassa), a former slave who bought
his freedom, moved to England, and settled in Soham
, Cambridgeshire, where he married and wrote an
autobiography, dying in 1797; Ukawsaw
Gronniosaw, pioneer of the slave
narrative; and Ignatius Sancho,
a grocer who also acquired a reputation as a man of letters. In 2004, a poll found
that people considered the
Crimean War
heroine
Mary Seacole to be the greatest
Black Briton. Seacole was born in Jamaica in 1805 to a white father
and black mother.
A statue of her is planned for the grounds
of St.
Thomas' Hospital
in London.
More recently, a large number of Black British people have achieved
prominence in public life.
An example from television is reporter and
newsreader Sir Trevor McDonald, born
in Trinidad
, who was knighted in 1999. McDonald is
now seen as a part of the broadcasting establishment. His clear,
confident delivery and serious attitude have made him one of
British television's most trusted presenters, winning more awards
than any other British broadcaster. Other examples from television
are entertainer
Lenny Henry and chef
Ainsley Harriott.
In art and film,
Steve
McQueen won the
Turner prize in
1999, he has since directed his first feature
Hunger.
The film earned him the Caméra d'Or at the 2008 Cannes
Film Festival
.
Michael Fuller, after a successful career in
the Metropolitan Police, has
been Chief Constable of Kent
since
2004. He is the son of Jamaican immigrants who came to the
United Kingdom in the 1950s. Fuller was brought up in
Sussex, where his interest in the
police force was encouraged by an officer
attached to his school. He is a graduate in
social psychology.
In business,
Damon Buffini heads
Permira, one of the world's largest
private equity firms. Buffini topped the 07
'power list' as the most powerful Black male in the United Kingdom
by
New Nation magazine and was recently
appointed to Prime Minister
Gordon
Brown's business advisory panel.
René Carayol is a successful
broadcaster,
broadsheet columnist,
business & leadership
speaker and
author, best known
for presenting the
BBC series
Did They Pay Off
Their Mortgage in Two Years?. He has also served as an
executive main board director for blue-chip companies as well as
the public sector.
Wol
Kolade is council member and Chairman of the BVCA (British Venture Capital
Association) and a Governor and council member of the London School of Economics and Political
Science
, chairing its Audit
Committee.
Finally,
Wilfred
Emmanuel-Jones is a businessman, farmer and founder of the
popular
Black Farmer range of food
products. In addition, he is also a prospective
Conservative Party candidate for the
Chippenham
constituency for the
next general
election.
In 2005,
soldier Johnson Beharry, born in
Grenada
of mixed Black African and East Indian roots, became the first man to win
the Victoria Cross, the United
Kingdom's foremost military award for bravery, since the Falklands War of 1982. He was awarded the
medal for service in Iraq
in
2004.
In sport, prominent examples of success include boxing champion
Frank Bruno, whose career highlight was
winning the WBC
world
heavyweight championship in 1995. Altogether, he has won 40 of
his 45 contests. He is also well known for acting in
pantomime.
Lennox Lewis, born in East
London
, is another successful Black British boxer and
former undisputed heavyweight champion of the world.
Recently,
Lewis Hamilton, who is
mixed-race, has created a major impact in the world of
Formula One racing, with many comparing his
arrival in a largely white-dominated sport to that of
Tiger Woods in
golf.
Kelly Holmes, who won two gold medals in the
2004 Athens Olympics, is also
mixed-race: her black father was born in Jamaica
, while her white mother is English.
People of black ancestry such as
Bernie
Grant,
Baroness Amos and
Diane Abbott, as well as
Oona King and
Paul
Boateng who are of mixed race, have made significant
contributions to
politics and
trade unionism.
Paul Boateng became the UK's first black biracial
cabinet minister in 2002 when he was
appointed as
Chief
Secretary to the Treasury.
Bill Morris was elected
general secretary of the
Transport and General
Workers' Union in 1992.
He was knighted
in 2003, and in 2006 he took a seat in the House of
Lords as a working life peer,
Baron Morris of Handsworth.
Diane Abbott became the first black woman
Member of Parliament when she was elected to the House of
Commons
in the 1987 general
election.
There have also been several unsuccessful black and mixed race
parliamentary candidates in recent elections (particularly those
since 1997). Musician and community activist Richard Bilcliffe
achieved local fame (which regretably did not lead to many votes)
in the Petch-Waters Valley district by-election of 1999; his older
sister Melody (of entirely white origin) had stood for the same
seat in 1987.
Valerie Amos became the first black
woman cabinet minister and the first black woman to become
leader of the House of
Lords.
Numerous Black British actors have become successful in US
television, such as
Adewale
Akinnuoye-Agbaje,
Idris Elba,
Lennie James,
Marsha Thomason and
Marianne Jean-Baptiste. Black British
actors are also increasingly found starring in major Hollywood
movies, notable examples include
Adrian
Lester,
Ashley Walters,
Chiwetel Ejiofor,
Colin Salmon,
David
Harewood,
Eamonn Walker,
Hugh Quarshie,
Naomie
Harris,
Sophie Okonedo and
Thandie Newton.
Social issues
There is much controversy surrounding the politics of
integrating the United Kingdom's black
community, particularly concerning crime, discrimination in basic
services, employment and education.
The poverty rate for the United Kingdom’s minority ethnic groups
stands at 40%, double the 20% found amongst white British people,
according to new research published in 2007 (30 April) by the
Joseph Rowntree
Foundation (JRF). Minority ethnic groups are also being paid
lower wages, despite improvements in education and qualifications.
The research highlights the differences between minority ethnic
groups with 45% of Black Africans and 30% of Indians and Black
Caribbeans living in poverty. Over half of Black African children
in the UK are growing up in poverty.The research shows that people
from minority ethnic groups who have higher educational
achievements do not receive the same rewards as those from white
British backgrounds with similar qualifications. A wide range of
factors are shown to affect different groups and the research
highlights how the Government needs to consider and implement more
targeted policies.
According to the TUC report
Black workers, jobs and
poverty, people from black and Asian groups are far more
likely to be unemployed than the white population, despite having
the required skills and qualifications. The rate of unemployment
among the white population is only 11%, but among black groups it
is 13%, mixed-race 15%, Indian 7%, Pakistani 15% and Bangladeshi
17%. The usual argument to counter high unemployment rates among
black and Asian people - namely that they lack the necessary skills
and qualifications - does not bear merit, the report states. For
example, 81.4% of black and Asian people with degrees are employed,
compared with 87.4% of white people. This statistic however does
not take account of the qualitative distinction of these degrees,
since degrees vary greatly in their employabiilty. Furthermore, a
white person whose highest qualification is GCSE’s at grades A-C is
more likely to have a job than a black or Asian person with
A-levels.
Both racist crime and black on black gang-related crime continues
to affect black communities. Numerous deaths in police custody of
black men have grown a general distrust of police amongst urban
blacks in the UK. According to the Metropolitan Police Authority in
2002-2003 of the 17 deaths in police custody, 10 were black or
Asian. The government reports the overall number of racist
incidents recorded by the police rose by 7% from 49,078 in 2002/3
to 52,694 in 2003/4.
The media has highlighted black gangs and black on black violence.
According to the Home Office report, 10% of all homicide victims
between 2000 and 2004 were black. Of these, 56% were murdered by
other blacks. Given that blacks represent approximately 3% of the
British population, black on black violence is a significant
problem.
Black people, who according to government statistics make up 2% of
the population, are the principal suspects in 11.7% of homicides,
i.e. in 252 out of 2163 homicides committed 2001/2, 2002/3, and
2003/4. It should be noted that, judging on the basis of prison
population, a substantial minority (about 35%) of black criminals
in the UK are not British citizens but
foreign nationals.
After several high-profile investigations such as that of the
murder of
Stephen Lawrence, the
police have often been accused of racism, from both within and
outside the service. Cressida Dick, head of the
Metropolitan Police's anti-racism unit
in 2003, remarked that it was 'difficult to imagine a situation
where we will say we are no longer
institutionally racist'.
See also
References
- Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race:
for reflection and debate R Bhopal. Journal of Epidemiology and
Community Health. Accessed 6 October 2006
- Southall Black Sisters website
- The Guardian "What the migrant saw" by
Jatinder
Verma, founder in 1977 of Tara Arts, the first Asian theatre company in
Britain "Everywhere my friends and I looked, it seemed black
people, as we identified ourselves, were victims of white
oppression."
- What is meant by Black and Asian? "In the 1970s
Black was used as a political term to encompass many groups who
shared a common experience of oppression - this could include Asian
but also Irish, for example"
- The term Black and Asian - a Short History "In
the late 1960’s through to the mid 1980’s, we progressives called
ourselves Black. This was not only because the word was reclaimed
as a positive, but we also knew that we shared a common experience
of racism because of our skin colour."
- http://www.blackartists.org.uk/
- The Black Arts Alliance encourages "a coming together of
Black people from Africa, Asia and the Caribbean because our
histories have parallels of oppression"
- Their website intro states "Black Arts Alliance is 21 years
old. Formed in 1985 it is the longest surviving network of Black
artists representing the arts and culture drawn from ancestral
heritages of South Asia, Africa, South America, and the Caribbean
and, in more recent times, due to global conflict, our newly
arrived compatriots known collectively as refugees." the Black Arts
Alliance
- National Black Police Association states that
their "emphasis is on the common experience and determination of
the people of African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin to oppose
the effects of racism."
- Census classifications
- [1] BBC article on "Multiculturalism the Wembley
way"
- National Archives
- Banton, Michael (1955), The Coloured Quarter. Jonathan
Cape. London.
- Shyllon, Folarin, "The Black Presence and Experience in
Britain: An Analytical Overview", in Gundara and Duffield eds.
(1992), Essays on the History of Blacks in Britain.
Avebury, Aldershot.http://www.chronicleworld.org
- Black liverpool: the early history of Britain's Oldest
Black Community 1730 - 1918 by Ray Costello, Picton Press,
Liverpool 2001
- File, Nigel and Chris Power (1981), Black Settlers in
Britain 1555-1958. Heinnemann Educational.
http://www.chronicleworld.org
- The Capital's history uncovered
- Geoffrey Bell, The other Eastenders : Kamal Chunchie and
West Ham's early black community (Stratford: Eastside
Community Heritage, 2002)
- Tyne Roots
- Tristram Hunt, “Lest we forget”, section entitled “Cardiff race
riots, 1919 Scene of the first credible declaration of black
British identity”, The Guardian, July 24th, 2006,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2006/jul/24/past.britishidentity
- Writing black Britain 1948-1998. James
Procter.(Manchester)
- http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/ss-windrush icons:
a portrait of England: SS Empire Windrush
- Writing black Britain 1948-1998. James Procter.
(Manchester)
- Writing black Britain 1948-1998. James Procter.
(Manchester)
- Check Browser Settings
- Neighbourhood Statistics Home Page
- Alumni and friends | Notable Alumni | Michael
Fuller
- www.tuc.org.uk/welfare/tuc-10172-f0.pdf
- http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/s95race04.pdf.
- http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273; accessed 21
May
- Table 3.6 of Home Office publication "Statistics on Race and
the Criminal Justice System 2004"
- Chapter 9, tables 9.1 - 9.4, of Home Office publication
"Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2004"
- 'Metropolitan police still institutionally racist'
| Special reports | Guardian Unlimited
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