The
Bronze Age of a
culture
is the period when the most advanced
metalworking (at least in systematic and
widespread use) in that culture utilised
bronze. This could either have been based on the
local
smelting of
copper and
tin from
ores, or trading for bronze from production areas
elsewhere. Many, though not all, bronze age cultures flourished in
prehistory.
The naturally occurring ores typically included
arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are
rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in
western Asia before 3000
BC. The Bronze Age is
regarded as the second part of a
three-age system for prehistoric societies,
though there are some cultures that have extensive written records
during their Bronze Ages. In this system, in some areas of the
world the Bronze Age followed the
Neolithic
age. However in many parts of
sub-Saharan Africa, the
Neolithic age was directly followed by the
Iron Age. In some parts of the world, a
Copper Age followed the Neolithic Age and
preceded the Bronze Age.
Origins
The place and time of the invention of bronze are controversial. It
is possible that bronzing was invented independently in the
Maykop culture in the
North Caucasus as far back as the mid 4th
millennium BC, which would make them the makers of the oldest known
bronze; however, others date the same Maykop artifacts to the mid
3rd millennium BC. However, the Maykop culture only had arsenic
bronze, which is a naturally occurring alloy. Tin bronze, which
developed later, requires more sophisticated production techniques:
tin has to be mined (mainly as the tin ore
cassiterite) and smelted separately, then added
to molten copper to make the bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a
time of heavy usage of metals.
Near East

Bronze Age weaponry and
ornaments
Periodization for the Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East is as
follows:
Bronze Age
(3300–1200 BC)
|
Early Bronze Age
(3300–2200 BC)
|
Early Bronze Age I |
3300–3000 BC |
Early Bronze Age II |
3000–2700 BC |
Early Bronze Age III |
2700–2200 BC |
Middle Bronze Age
(2200–1550 BC)
|
Middle Bronze Age I |
2200–2000 BC |
Middle Bronze Age II A |
2000–1750 BC |
Middle Bronze Age II B |
1750–1650 BC |
Middle Bronze Age II C |
1650–1550 BC |
Late Bronze Age
(1550–1200 BC)
|
Late Bronze Age I |
1550–1400 BC |
Late Bronze Age II A |
1400–1300 BC |
Late Bronze Age II B |
1300–1200 BC |
|
Mesopotamia
In
Mesopotamia, the Bronze Age begins at
about 2900 BC in the late
Uruk
period,
spanning the Early Dynastic period of
Sumer, the Akkadian
Empire
, the Old Babylonian
and Old Assyrian periods and the period
of Kassite hegemony.
Ancient Egypt
In
Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age
begins in the
Protodynastic period, c. 3150
BC.
- Early Bronze Age
- Middle Bronze Age
- Late Bronze Age
Levant
- Early Bronze Age
- Middle Bronze Age
- Late Bronze Age
Anatolia
Persian Plateau
Caucasus
Some scholars date some arsenical bronze artifacts of the
Maykop culture in the
North Caucasus as far back as the mid 4th
millennium BC.If true, these are the earliest bronze artifacts in
existence.
Central Asia
The
Altai
Mountains
in what is
now southern Russia
and central
Mongolia
have been
identified as the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the
Seima-Turbino
Phenomenon. It is conjectured that changes in climate in
this region around 2000 BC and the ensuing ecological, economic and
political changes triggered a rapid and massive migration westward
into northeast Europe and eastward into southeast China, Vietnam
and Thailand
across a frontier of some 4,000 miles. This
migration took place in just five to six generations and led to
peoples from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east employing
the same metal working technology and, in some areas, horse
breeding and riding. It is further conjectured that the same
migrations spread the
Uralic group
of languages across Europe and Asia: some 39 languages of this
group are still extant, including
Hungarian,
Finnish,
Estonian and
Lappish.
Indus valley
The Bronze Age on the
Indian
subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the beginning of the
Indus Valley civilization.
Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans
, developed new techniques in metallurgy and
produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.
The Indian Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Period
(1500–500 BC). The Harappan culture, which dates from 1700 BC to
1300 BC, overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron
Age; thus it is difficult to date this transition accurately.
Far East
China
Historians disagree about the dates that should be attached to a
“Bronze Age” in China. The difficulty lies in the term “Bronze Age”
itself, as it has been applied to signify a period in European and
Middle Eastern history when bronze tools replaced stone tools, and
were later replaced by iron ones. In those places, the medium of
the new “Age” made that of the old obsolete. In China, however, any
attempt to establish a definite set of dates for a Bronze Age is
complicated by two factors: the arrival of iron smelting technology
and the persistence of bronze in tools, weapons and sacred vessels.
The earliest bronze artifacts are found in the
Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and
2700 BC), and from then on the society gradually grew into the
Bronze Age.
Bronze
metallurgy in China originated in what is referred to as the
Erlitou
(also Erh-li-t’ou) period, which some historians
argue places it within the range of dates controlled by the
Shang dynasty. Others believe
the Erlitou sites belong to the preceding
Xia (also Hsia) dynasty. The U.S.
National
Gallery of Art
defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the “period
between about 2000 BC and 771 BC,” a period that begins with
Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of
Western Zhou rule.
Though this provides a concise frame of reference, it overlooks the
continued importance of bronze in Chinese metallurgy and culture.
Since this is significantly later than the discovery of bronze in
Mesopotamia, bronze technology could have been imported rather than
discovered independently in China.
Iron is found in the Zhou period, but its use is minimal. Chinese
literature dating to the 6th century BC attests a knowledge of iron
smelting, yet bronze continues to occupy the seat of significance
in the archaeological and historical record for some time after
this. Historian W. C. White argues that iron did not supplant
bronze “at any period before the end of the Zhou dynasty (481 BC)”
and that bronze vessels make up the majority of metal vessels all
the way through the Later Han period, or through
AD 221.
The Chinese bronze artifacts generally are either utilitarian, like
spear points or adze heads, or ritualistic, like the numerous large
sacrificial tripods. However, even some of the most utilitarian
objects bear the markings of more sacred items. The Chinese
inscribed all kinds of bronze items with three main motif types:
demons, symbolic animals, and abstract symbols. Some large bronzes
also bear inscriptions that have helped historians and
archaeologists piece together the history of China, especially
during the Zhou period.
The bronzes of the Western Zhou period document large portions of
history not found in the extant texts, and often were composed by
persons of varying rank and possibly even social class. Further,
the medium of cast bronze lends the record they preserve a
permanence not enjoyed by manuscripts. These inscriptions can
commonly be subdivided into four parts: a reference to the date and
place, the naming of the event commemorated, the list of gifts
given to the artisan in exchange for the bronze, and a dedication.
The relative points of reference these vessels provide have enabled
historians to place most of the vessels within a certain time frame
of the Western Zhou period, allowing them to trace the evolution of
the vessels and the events they record.
Southeast Asia
Dating
back to the Neolithic Age,the first
bronze drums, called the Dong Son
drums have been uncovered in and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam
and Southern China. These relate to the
prehistoric
Dong Son Culture of
Vietnam.
In
Ban
Chiang
, Thailand
, (Southeast Asia)
bronze artifacts have been
discovered dating to 2100 BC.
In
Nyaunggan, Burma
bronze tools
have been excavated along with ceramics and stone artifacts.
Dating is still currently broad (3500–500 BC).
Korean peninsula
The Middle
Mumun pottery period
culture of the southern
Korean
Peninsula gradually adopted bronze production (c. 700–600? BC)
after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze
artifacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the
Southern Peninsula (c. 900–700 BC). The bronze daggers lent
prestige and authority to the personages who wielded and were
buried with them in high-status megalithic burials at south-coastal
centres such as the
Igeum-dong site.
Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary
offerings until 100.
Pontic-Caspian steppe
Europe
Central Europe
In
Central Europe, the early Bronze Age
Unetice culture (1800–1600 BC)
includes numerous smaller groups like the Straubing, Adlerberg and Hatvan cultures
. Some very rich burials, such as the one
located at
Leubingen with grave gifts
crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification
already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of
this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is
followed by the middle Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC)
Tumulus culture, which is characterised by
inhumation burials in
tumuli (barrows).
In the
eastern Hungarian
Körös tributaries,
the early Bronze Age first saw the introduction of the Mako culture, followed by the Ottomany and Gyulavarsand cultures.
The late Bronze Age
Urnfield culture,
(1300–700 BC) is characterized by cremation burials.
It includes the
Lusatian culture in eastern
Germany
and Poland
(1300–500
BC) that continues into the Iron
Age. The Central European Bronze Age is followed by the
Iron Age
Hallstatt culture
(700–450 BC).
Important sites
include:
The Bronze Age in Central Europe has been described in the
chronological schema of German prehistorian Paul Reinecke. He
described Bronze A1 (Bz A1) period (2300–2000 BC : triangular
daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards, flint arrowheads) and
Bronze A2 (Bz A2) period (1950–1700 BC : daggers with metal hilt,
flanged axes, halberds, pins with perforated spherical heads, solid
bracelets) and phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B).
Aegean
The Aegean Bronze Age begins around 3000 BC, when civilizations
first established a far-ranging
trade network.
This
network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus
, where
copper was mined and alloyed with the tin to
produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and
wide, and supported the trade.
Isotopic analysis of
the tin in some Mediterranean
bronze objects indicates it came from as far away
as Great
Britain
.
Knowledge of
navigation was well
developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded
(except perhaps by
Polynesian sailors) until
AD 1730 when the invention of the
chronometer enabled the precise determination of
longitude.
The
Minoan civilization based in
Knossos
appears to have coordinated and defended its Bronze
Age trade.
Illyrians are also believed to have roots
in the early Bronze Age.
Numerous authorities believe that ancient empires were prone to
undervalue
staple foods in favor of
luxury goods, leading to famine. This
may have arisen because money was concentrated in the hands of a
few people, rather than due to a lack of modern accounting
methods.
Collapse in Aegean
How the Bronze Age ended in this region is still being studied.
There is evidence that
Mycenaean
administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of
Minoan primacy, and that several Minoan
client states lost much of their population to
famine and/or pestilence. This would indicate that the trade
network may have failed, preventing the trade that would previously
have relieved such famines and prevented illness caused by
malnutrition.
It is also known that in this era the
breadbasket of the Minoan empire, the
area north of the Black
Sea
, also suddenly lost much of its population, and
thus probably some cultivation.

Mycenaean sword found in Eastern
Europe
Recent
research has discredited the theory that exhaustion of the Cyprus
forests
caused the end of the bronze trade. These forests are known
to have existed into later times, and experiments have shown that
charcoal production on the scale necessary
for the bronze production of the late Bronze Age would have
exhausted them in less than fifty years.
One theory says that as
iron tools became more common, the main justification for
the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as
it once did. The colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered
drought, famine, war, or some combination of those three, and had
no access to the distant resources of an empire by which they could
easily recover.
Another
family of theories looks to Knossos
itself. The Thera eruption
occurred at this time, 110 km (70 mi) north of
Crete. Some authorities speculate that a
tsunami from Thera (more commonly known today as
Santorini) destroyed Cretan cities. Others say that perhaps a
tsunami destroyed the Cretan
navy in its home
harbour, which then lost crucial naval battles; so that in the
LMIB/LMII event (c.
1450 BC) the cities
of Crete
burned and
the Mycenaean civilization
took over Knossos. If the eruption occurred in the late 17th
century BC (as most chronologists now think) then its immediate
effects belong to the Middle Bronze to Late Bronze Age transition,
and not to the end of the Late Bronze Age; but it could have
triggered the instability that led to the collapse first of Knossos
and then of Bronze Age society overall. One such theory looks to
the role of Cretan expertise in administering the empire,
post-Thera. If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, then the
Mycenaeans may have made political and commercial mistakes in
administering the Cretan empire.
More recent archaeological findings, including some on the island
of Thera, suggest that the center of Minoan Civilization at the
time of the eruption was actually on Thera rather than on Crete.
According to this theory, the catastrophic loss of the political,
administrative and economic center by the eruption as well as the
damage wrought by the tsunami to the coastal towns and villages of
Crete precipitated the decline of the Minoans. A weakened political
entity with a reduced economic and military capability and fabled
riches would have then been more vulnerable to human predators.
Indeed, the Santorini Eruption is usually dated to c. 1630 BC,
while the Mycenaean Greeks first enter the historical record a few
decades later, c. 1600 BC. Thus, the later Mycenaean assaults on
Crete (c.1450 BC) and Troy (c.1250 BC) are revealed as mere
continuations of the steady encroachments of the Greeks upon the
weakened Minoan world.
Each of these theories is persuasive, and aspects of all of them
may have some validity in describing the end of the Bronze Age in
this region.
Italy
Iberian peninsula, France
.jpg/180px-Sword_bronze_age_(2nd_version).jpg)
Ceremonial giant dirk of the
Plougrescant-Ommerschans type, Plougrescant, France, 1500–1300
BC.
Great Britain
In
Great
Britain
, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the
period from around 2100 to 750 BC. Migration brought new people to the islands
from the continent.
Recent tooth enamel isotope research on
bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge
indicate that at least some of the migrants came
from the area of modern Switzerland
. The
Beaker
culture displayed different behaviours from the earlier
Neolithic people, and cultural change was
significant. Integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many
of the early
henge sites were seemingly
adopted by the newcomers. The rich
Wessex
culture developed in southern Britain at this time.
Additionally, the climate was deteriorating; where once the weather
was warm and dry it became much wetter as the Bronze Age continued,
forcing the population away from easily defended sites in the hills
and into the fertile
valleys. Large livestock
farms developed in the lowlands and appear to have contributed to
economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances. The
Deverel-Rimbury culture
began to emerge in the second half of the Middle Bronze Age (c.
1400–1100 BC) to exploit these conditions.
Devon
and
Cornwall
were major sources of tin for
much of western Europe and copper was
extracted from sites such as the Great Orme
mine in northern Wales
.
Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing
complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent.
The burial of dead (which until this period had usually been
communal) became more individual.
For example, whereas in the Neolithic a
large chambered cairn or long barrow was used to house the dead, the
Early Bronze Age saw people buried in individual barrows (also commonly known and marked on modern
British Ordnance
Survey
maps as tumuli), or sometimes in cists covered with cairns.
The
greatest quantities of bronze objects found in England
were discovered in East Cambridgeshire
, where the most important finds were recovered in
Isleham
(more than 6500 pieces
).
Bronze Age seafaring
Ireland
The
Bronze Age in Ireland
commenced around 2000 BC, when copper was alloyed with tin and used
to manufacture
Ballybeg type flat axes and
associated metalwork. The preceding period is known as the
Copper Age and is characterised by the production
of
flat axes,
daggers,
halberds and
awls in copper. The period is divided into
three phases:
Early Bronze Age
(2000–1500 BC),
Middle Bronze Age
(1500–1200 BC), and
Late Bronze Age
(1200 – c. 500 BC). Ireland is also known for a relatively large
number of Early Bronze Age
burials.
One of the characteristic types of artifact of the Early Bronze Age
in Ireland is the flat axe. There are five main types of flat axes:
Lough Ravel (c. 2200 BC), Ballybeg (c.
2000 BC),
Killaha (c. 2000 BC),
Ballyvalley (c. 2000–1600 BC),
Derryniggin (c. 1600 BC), and a number of metal
ingots in the shape of axes.
North Europe
Americas
The
Inca civilization of
South America independently discovered and
developed bronze smelting
[404].
Later appearance of limited bronze smelting
in West Mexico
(see
Metallurgy in
pre-Columbian Mesoamerica) suggests either contact of that
region with the Incas or separate discovery of the
technology.
See also
Notes
-
http://budgetcastingsupply.com/images/C873-Silicon-Bronze.jpg
- Chang, K. C.: “Studies of Shang Archaeology”, pp. 6–7, 1. Yale
University Press, 1982.
- Chang, K. C.: “Studies of Shang Archaeology”, p. 1. Yale
University Press, 1982.
- http://www.nga.gov/education/chinatp_pt2.shtm Teaching Chinese
Archaeology, Part Two — NGA
- Li-Liu; The Chinese Neolithic, Cambridge University Press,
2005
- Barnard, N.: “Bronze Casting and Bronze Alloys in Ancient
China”, p. 14. The Australian National University and Monumenta
Serica, 1961.
- White, W. C.: “Bronze Culture of Ancient China”, p. 208.
University of Toronto Press, 1956.
- Erdberg, E.: “Ancient Chinese Bronzes”, p. 20.
Siebenbad-Verlag, 1993.
- Shaughnessy, E. L.: “Sources of Western Zhou History”, pp.
xv–xvi. University of California Press, 1982.
- Shaughnessy, E. L. “Sources of Western Zhou History”, pp.
76–83. University of California Press, 1982.
- Shaughnessy, E. L. “Sources of Western Zhou History”, p.
107
- Bronze from Ban Chiang, Thailand: A view from the
Laboratory
- Nyaunggan City - Archaeological Sites in
Myanmar
- Hall and Coles, p. 81–88.
- Waddell; Eogan.
References
- Eogan, George (1983) The hoards of the Irish later Bronze
Age, Dublin : University College, 331p., ISBN
0-901120-77-4
- Hall, David and Coles, John (1994) Fenland survey : an
essay in landscape and persistence, Archaeological report
1, London : English Heritage, 170 p., ISBN
1-85074-477-7
- Pernicka, E., Eibner, C., Öztunah, Ö., Wagener, G.A. (2003)
"Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean", In: Wagner,
G.A., Pernicka, E. and Uerpmann, H-P. (eds), Troia and the
Troad : scientific approaches, Natural science in archaeology,
Berlin; London : Springer, ISBN 3-540-43711-8, p. 143–172
- Waddell, John (1998) The prehistoric archaeology of
Ireland, Galway University Press, 433 p., ISBN
1-901421-10-4
- Siklosy et al. (2009): Bronze Age volcanic event recorded in
stalagmites by combined isotope and trace element studies. Rapid
Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 23/6, 801-808. [DOI:
10.1002/rcm.3943]
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122202090/abstract
External links