Burkina Faso ( ; ), also known by its short-form
name
Burkina, is a
landlocked nation in
West
Africa.
It is surrounded by six countries: Mali
to the
north, Niger
to the east,
Benin
to the south east, Togo
and Ghana
to the
south, and Côte
d'Ivoire
to the south west.
Its size is 274,000 km² with an estimated population of more
than 13,200,000. Formerly called the
Republic of Upper
Volta,
it was renamed
on August 4, 1984, by President
Thomas
Sankara to mean "the land of upright people" in
Moré and
Dioula, the major native languages of the
country. Literally, "Burkina" may be translated, "men of
integrity," from the Moré language, and "Faso" means "father's
house" in Dioula. The inhabitants of Burkina Faso are known as
Burkinabè ( ).
Burkina
Faso's capital is Ouagadougou
. After gaining independence from France
in 1960, the
country underwent many governmental changes until arriving at its
current form, a semi-presidential republic. The president is
Blaise Compaoré. The country occupies
the sixth to last place on the
Human Development Index.
History
Early history
Burkina Faso was populated early, between 14000 and 5000 BC, by
hunter-gatherers in the northwestern
part of the country, whose tools, such as
scrapers,
chisels and
arrowheads, were
discovered in 1973. Settlements appeared between 3600 and 2600 BC
with farmers. Based on traces of the farmers' structures, the
settlements appear to have been permanent. The use of iron,
ceramics and polished stone developed between 1500 and 1000 BC, as
well as a preoccupation with spiritual matters, as shown by burial
remains.
Relics of the
Dogon are found in Burkina
Faso's north and northwest regions.
The Dogon left the area between the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to settle in the cliffs of
Bandiagara
. Elsewhere, the remains of high walls are
localized in the southwest of Burkina Faso (as well as in the Cote
d`Ivoire), but the people who built them have not been
identified.
The central part of Burkina Faso included a number of
Mossi kingdoms, the most powerful of which were that
of Wagadogo (Ouagadougou) and Yatenga. These kingdoms emerged
probably in the early sixteenth century from obscure origins veiled
by legend featuring a heterogeneous set of warrior figures.
From colony to independence
Traditional homes in south-east
Burkina Faso
After a decade of intense rivalry and competition between the
English and the French, waged through treaty-making expeditions
under military or civilian explorers, the
Mossi kingdom of Ouagadougou was defeated by French
colonial forces and became a French protectorate in 1896. The
eastern region and the western region, where a standoff against the
forces of the powerful ruler
Samori Ture
complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By
1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso
today was nominally conquered; however, control of many parts
remained uncertain.
The French and English convention of 14 June 1898 ended the
scramble between the two colonial powers and drew the borders
between the countries' colonies. On the French side, a war of
conquest against local communities and political powers continued
for about five years. In 1904, the largely pacified territories of
the
Volta basin were integrated into the
Upper Senegal and Niger
colony of
French West Africa as
part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial
empire.
The colony had its capital in Bamako
.
Draftees from the territory
participated in the European fronts of
World
War I in the battalions of the
Senegalese Rifles. Between
1915 and 1916, the districts in the western part of what is now
Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the
stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial
government, known as the Volta-Bani War. The French government
finally suppressed the movement, but only after suffering defeats
and being forced to gather the largest expeditionary force of its
colonial history up to that point. Armed opposition also wracked
the Sahelian north when the
Tuareg and allied
groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the
government.
French Upper Volta was
established on March 1, 1919. This move was a result of French
fears of the recurrence of armed uprising along with economic
considerations, and the colonial government separated the present
territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger to bolster
its administration. The new colony was named
Haute Volta and François Charles Alexis Édouard
Hesling became its first
governor. Hesling initiated
an ambitious road-making program and promoted the growth of cotton
for export. The cotton policy, based on
coercion, failed, and revenue stagnated.
The colony
was later dismantled on September 5, 1932, being split up between
the Côte d’Ivoire, French Sudan and
Niger. Côte d'Ivoire received the largest share,
which contained most of the population as well as the cities of
Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso
.
Children of the 1983–1987
revolution
The decision was reversed during the intense anti-colonial
agitation that followed the end of World War II. After
World War II, on September 4, 1947, the colony
was revived as a part of the
French
Union, with its previous boundaries. On 11 December 1958, it
achieved
self-government and became
the
Republic of Upper Volta
and a member of the Franco-African Community. A revision in the
organization of French Overseas Territories began with the passage
of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956. This act was
followed by reorganizational measures approved by the French
parliament early in 1957 that ensured a large degree of
self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an
autonomous republic in the French community on December 11, 1958.
Full independence from France was attained in 1960.
Upper Volta
The
Republic of Upper Volta ( ) was established on
December 11, 1958, as a
self-governing colony within the
French Community. The name Upper
Volta indicated that the country contains the upper part of the
Volta River.
The river is divided
into three parts, called the Black Volta
, White
Volta
and Red
Volta
, and the colors of the national flag corresponded
to the parts of the river.
Before attaining autonomy it had been
French Upper Volta and part of the
French Union. On August 5, 1960 it
attained full independence from
France. The first president,
Maurice Yaméogo, was the leader of the
Voltaic Democratic Union
(UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal
suffrage of a president and a national assembly for five-year
terms. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all political
parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966 when
after much unrest—mass demonstrations and strikes by students,
labor unions, and civil servants—the military intervened.
The military coup deposed Yaméogo, suspended the constitution,
dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col.
Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a
government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for
four years, and on June 14, 1970, the Voltans ratified a new
constitution that established a four-year transition period toward
complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the
1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments.
After conflict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was
written and approved in 1977, and Lamizana was reelected by open
elections in 1978.
Lamizana's government faced problems with the country's
traditionally powerful trade unions, and on November 25, 1980, Col.
Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana
in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military
Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme
governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977
constitution.
Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was
overthrown two years later, on November 7, 1982, by Maj. Dr.
Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo
and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP). The CSP continued to
ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition
to civilian rule and a new constitution.
Factional infighting developed between moderates in the CSP and the
radicals, led by Capt.
Thomas
Sankara, who was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The
internal political struggle and Sankara's leftist rhetoric led to
his arrest and subsequent efforts to bring about his release,
directed by Capt.
Blaise
Compaoré. This release effort resulted in yet another military
coup d'état on August 4, 1983.
After the coup, Sankara formed the National Council for the
Revolution (CNR), with himself as president. Sankara also
established Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) to
"mobilize the masses" and implement the CNR's revolutionary
programs. The CNR, whose exact membership remained secret until the
end, contained two small intellectual Marxist-Leninist groups.
Sankara, Compaore, Capt.
Henri Zongo,
and Maj.
Jean-Baptiste
Lingani—all leftist military officers—dominated the
regime.
On August 4, 1984, as a final result of President Sankara's zealous
activities, the country's name was eventually changed from Upper
Volta to Burkina Faso, which translates to "land of honest
people".
Politics
The
constitution of 2 June 1991
established a semi-presidential government with a
parliament which can be dissolved by the
President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of seven
years. In 2000, however, the constitution was amended to reduce the
presidential term to five years. The amendment took effect during
the 2005 elections. The amendment also would have prevented the
sitting president,
Blaise
Compaoré, from being reelected; however, notwithstanding a
challenge by other presidential candidates, the constitutional
council ruled in October 2005 that because Compaoré was the sitting
president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the
end of his second term in office. This cleared the way for his
candidacy in
the 2005 election.
On 13 November, Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a
divided political opposition.
The parliament consists of two chambers: the lower house, known as
the National Assembly, and the upper house, the House of
Representatives. There is also a constitutional chamber, composed
of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles are
purely consultative.
Regions, provinces, and departments
Burkina Faso is divided into thirteen
regions, forty-five
provinces, and 301
department. The regions
are:
Military, Police, and Security Forces
The country employs numerous police and security forces, generally
modeled after organizations used by French police, and France
continues to provide significant support and training to police
forces in Burkina Faso. The
Gendarmerie Nationale are
organized along military lines, with most police services delivered
at the brigade level. The
Gendarmerie
operate under the authority of the Minister of Defence, and are
employed chiefly in the rural areas and along borders.
There is also a municipal police force controlled by the Ministry
of Territorial Administration, a national police force controlled
by the Ministry of Security, and an autonomous Presidential
Security Regiment (
Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle,
or RSP), a ‘palace guard’ devoted to the protection of the
President of the Republic. Both the gendarmerie and the national
police are subdivided into both administrative and judicial police
functions; the former are detailed to protect public order and
provide security, the latter are charged with criminal
investigations.
All foreigners and citizens are required to carry photo i.d.,
passports, or other forms of identification or risk a fine, and
police spot identity checks are commonplace for persons traveling
by auto,
bush-taxi, or bus.
The army consists of some 6,000 men in voluntary service, augmented
by a part-time national People's Militia composed of civilians
between 25 and 35 years of age who are trained in both military and
civil duties. According to
Jane’s Sentinel Country Risk
Assessment, Burkina Faso's Army is small and poorly equipped,
but has numbers of wheeled light-armour vehicles, and may have
developed useful combat expertise through interventions in Liberia
and elsewhere in Africa.
The army is relatively well-funded and motivated by African
standards, although undermanned for its force structure. The
regular army is believed to be neglected in relation to the elite
Presidential Security Regiment (RSP) and reports have emerged in
recent years of disputes over pay and conditions. There is an air
force with some 19 operational aircraft, but no navy, as the
country is landlocked. Military expenses constitute approximately
1.2% of the nation’s GDP.
Geography and climate
Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside. The
larger part of the country is covered by a
peneplain, which forms a gently undulating
landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last
vestiges of a
Precambrian massif. The southwest of the country, on the other
hand, forms a
sandstone massif, where the
highest peak, Ténakourou, is found at an elevation of
749 meters (2,450 feet). The massif is bordered by sheer
cliffs up to 150 meters (490 ft) high. The average
altitude of Burkina Faso is 400 meters (1,300 ft) and the
difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater
than 600 meters (2,000 ft). Burkina Faso is therefore a
relatively flat country.
The
country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which
cross it: the Black
Volta (or Mouhoun), the White Volta (Nakambé) and the Red Volta (Nazinon). The Black Volta, along
with the
Komoé, which flows to the
southwest, is one of the country's only two rivers which flow
year-round. The basin of the
Niger River
also
drains 27% of the country's
surface.
Its
tributaries, the Béli, the Gorouol,
the Goudébo and the Dargol, are
seasonal streams
and only flow for four to six months a year. They still, however,
can cause large
floods. The country also
contains numerous lakes.
The principal lakes are Tingrela, Bam
and Dem. The country also contains large
ponds, such as Oursi, Béli, Yomboli and Markoye.
Water shortages are often a problem, especially in
the north of the country.
Burkina Faso has a primarily
tropical
climate with two very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the
country receives between 600 and 900 millimeters (24–35 inches) of
rainfall, and in the dry season, the
harmattan, a hot dry wind from the Sahara, blows.
The rainy season lasts approximately four months, May/June to
September, and is shorter in the north of the country. Three
climatic zones can be defined: the Sahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and the
Sudan-Guinea. The
Sahel in the north typically
receives less than 600 millimeters (24 inches) of rainfall per year
and has high temperatures, 5–47 °
C
(40–115 °
F).
A
relatively dry tropical savanna,
the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the
Horn of Africa to the Atlantic
Ocean
, and borders the Sahara to
its north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the South. Situated between
11°3' and 13°5' north
latitude, the
Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall
and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone
receives more than 900 millimeters (35 inches) of rain each year
and has cooler average temperatures.
Burkina Faso's natural resources include
manganese,
limestone,
marble,
phosphates,
pumice,
salt and small
deposits of
gold.
Burkina Faso's fauna and flora are protected in two national parks
and several reserves, see
List of national parks in
Africa,
Nature
reserves of Burkina Faso.
Economy
Shop in Burkina Faso.
Burkina Faso has one of the lowest
GDP per
capita incomes in the world: $1,200.
Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic
product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists
mostly of livestock but also, especially in the south and
southwest, of growing
sorghum,
pearl millet,
maize ,
peanuts,
rice and
cotton.
Unemployment causes a high rate of emigration. For example, three
million citizens of Burkina Faso live in Côte d'Ivoire. According
to the
Central Bank
of West African States, these migrants send substantial amounts
of money back to Burkina Faso each year. Since the 1967 expulsions
from Ghana, this situation has provoked tensions in the recipient
countries. The most recent crisis occurred owing to the events of
2003 in Côte d'Ivoire, which led to the return of 300,000
migrants.
A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by
international aid.
The currency of Burkina Faso is the
CFA
franc.
There is mineral exploitation of
copper,
iron,
manganese and,
above all,
gold.
Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft Fair,
Ouagadougou, better known by its French name as
SIAO,
Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de
Ouagadougou, one of the most important African handicraft
fairs.
Burkina Faso is a member of the
Organization
for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (
OHADA).
Demographics
Burkina Faso's 15.3 million people belong to two major West African
cultural groups—the Voltaic and the Mande (whose common language is
Dioula). The Voltaic Mossi make up
about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from
warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso from Ghana and
established an empire that lasted more than 800 years.
Predominantly farmers, the Mossi kingdom is still led by the Mogho
Naba, whose court is in Ouagadougou.
Burkina Faso is an ethnically integrated, secular state. Most of
Burkina's people are concentrated in the south and center of the
country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.).
Hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe migrate to Cote d'Ivoire and
Ghana, many for seasonal agricultural work. These flows of workers
are obviously affected by external events; the September 2002 coup
attempt in Cote d'Ivoire and the ensuing fighting there have meant
that hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe returned to Burkina
Faso.
Health
Average life expectancy at birth in 2004 was estimated at 48 for
females and 47 for males. The median age of its inhabitants is
16.7. The estimated population growth rate is 3.109%.Central
government spending on health was 3 % in
2001.
As of 2004, it was estimated that there were as few as 6 physicians
per 100,000 people. In addition there were only 41 nurses, and 13
midwives per 100,000 people.
Religion
While exact statistics on religion in Burkina Faso are not
available and estimates vary widely, the
Government of Burkina Faso stated
in its most recent census (1996) that approximately 60 percent of
the population practice
Islam, and that the
majority of this group belong to the
Sunni
branch, while remaining minorities adhere to the
Shi'a branch, and significant numbers of Sunni Muslims
identify with the
Tijaniyah Sufi, or
Salafi traditions. The
Government also estimated that 24 percent of the population
maintains
traditional
indigenous beliefs, 17 percent practices
Roman Catholicism, and 3 percent are
members of various
Protestant
denominations. Atheism is virtually nonexistent.
A common proverb in Burkina Faso claims that "50% are
Muslim, 50% are
Christian,
and 100% are
Animist". This shows the large
level of acceptance of the various religions amongst each other.
Even for Muslims and Christians, ancient Animist rites are still
highly valued.
The Great Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso was built by people of all faiths working
together.
Culture and Cuisine
Literature in Burkina
Faso is based on the
oral
tradition, which remains important.
In 1934, during
French occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published his
Maximes, pensées et devinettes mossi (Maximes,
Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi), a record of the oral
history of the Mossi people. The oral
tradition continued to have an influence on Burkinabè writers in
the post-independence Burkina Faso of the 1960s, such as
Nazi Boni and Roger Nikiema. The 1960s saw a
growth in the number of
playwrights being
published. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina
Faso with many more writers being published.
The
theatre of Burkina Faso
combines traditional Burkinabè performance with the
colonial influences and post-colonial efforts to
educate rural people to produce a distinctive national theatre.
Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina
Faso have long involved dancing with masks. Western-style theatre
became common during colonial times, heavily influenced by
French theatre. With independence came a new
style of theatre inspired by
forum theatre aimed at educating
and entertaining Burkina Faso's rural people.
The
cuisine of Burkina Faso,
typically of
west African cuisine, is
based around
staple foods of
sorghum,
millet,
rice,
maize,
peanuts,
potatoes,
beans,
yam and
okra. The most common sources of protein are chicken,
chicken eggs and fresh water fish. A typical Burkinabè beverage is
Banji or Palm Wine, which is fermented palm sap, and Zoom-kom.
Especially the town of Banfora
is known for its good quality Banji, though you
should be wary of the Banji sold by hawkers
as it is often not very fresh and may contain added
water.
August 30th 2009, Burkina Faso experienced the worst flood in the
country's recent history, leaving 150,000 people homeless, and more
than 8 people dead. Burkina Faso people requested international aid
to help the victims and rebuild the country. Japan, France, Ivory
Cost and the European Union responded, while the Burkina American
community requested that the president of the United States of
America extend a helping hand to the victims of the flood.
Cinema
The
cinema of Burkina Faso is
an important part of
West African and
African film industry. Burkina's contribution
to African cinema started with the establishment of the film
festival FESPACO (Festival Panafrican du Cinéma et de la Télévison
de Ouagadougou), which was launched as a film week in 1969. Many of
the nation's filmmakers are known internationally and have won
international prizes. For many years the headquarters of the
Federation of Panafrican Filmmakers (FEPACI) was in Ouagadougou,
rescued in 1983 from a period of moribund inactivity by the
enthusiastic support and funding of President Sankara (In 2006 the
Secretariat of FEPACI moved to South Africa but the headquarters of
the organization is still in Ouagaoudougou). Among the best known
directors from Burkina Faso are:
Gaston Kaboré,
Idrissa Ouedraogo and
Dani Kouyate, Burkina also produces popular
television series such as Bobodjiouf. The internationally known
filmmakers such as Ouedraogo, Kabore, Yameogo, and Kouyate make
also popular television series.
Education
Education in Burkina Faso is divided into primary, secondary and
higher education. However schooling is school costs approximately
CFA 50,000 ($97 USD) per year, which is far above the means of most
Burkinabè families. Boys receive preference in schooling; as such,
girls' education and literacy rates are far lower than their male
counterparts. An increase in girls' schooling has been observed due
to the government's policy of making school cheaper for girls and
granting them more scholarships. In order to proceed from
elementary to middle school, middle to high school or high school
to college, national exams must be passed.
Institutions of
higher education include the University of Ouagadougou, The
Polytechnical University in Bobo-Dioulasso and the University of Koudougou, which is also a
teacher training institution. There are private
colleges in the capital city of Ouagadougou but these are affordable by only a small portion of
the population.
There is also an
International School of
Ouagadougou (ISO), which is an American-based private school
located in Ouagadougou.
The
United Nations Development
Program Report ranks Burkina Faso as the country with the lowest
level of literacy in the world, despite a concerted effort to
double its literacy rate from 12.8% in 1990 to 25.3% in 2008.
National and Independent Media
The nation's principal media outlet is its state-sponsored combined
television and radio service,
Radiodiffusion-Télévision
Burkina (RTB).
RTB broadcasts on two
medium-wave (
AM) and several
FM frequencies. Besides RTB, there are
also a number of privately-owned sports, cultural, music, and
religious FM radio stations.
RTB also maintains a
worldwide short-wave news broadcast (
Radio Nationale
Burkina) in the French language from the capital at
Ouagadougou using a 100Kw transmitter on 4.815 and 5.030 MHz.
Attempts to develop an independent press and media in Burkina Faso
have been intermittent. In 1998, investigative journalist
Norbert Zongo, his brother Ernest, his driver,
and another man were assassinated by unknown assailants, and the
bodies burned. The crime was never solved. However, an independent
Commission of Inquiry later concluded that Norbert Zongo was killed
for political reasons because of his investigative work into the
death of David Ouedraogo, a chauffeur who worked for François
Compaoré, President Blaise Compaoré's brother.In January 1999,
François Compaoré was charged with the murder of David Ouedraogo,
who had died as a result of torture in January 1998. The charges
were later dropped by a military tribunal after an appeal. In
August 2000, five members of the President's personal security
guard detail (
Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle, or
RSP) were charged with the murder of Ouedraogo. RSP members Marcel
Kafando, Edmond Koama, and Ousseini Yaro, investigated as suspects
in the Norbert Zongo assassination, were convicted in the Ouedraogo
case and sentenced to lengthy prison terms.
Since the death of Norbert Zongo, several protests regarding the
Zongo investigation and treatment of journalists have been
prevented or dispersed by government police and security forces. In
April 2007, popular radio reggae host Karim Sama, whose programs
feature reggae songs interspersed with critical commentary on
alleged government injustice and corruption, received several death
threats. Sama's personal car was later burned outside the private
radio station
Ouaga FM by unknown vandals. In response,
the
Committee to
Protect Journalists (CPJ) wrote to President Compaoré to
request his government investigate the sending of e-mailed death
threats to journalists and radio commentators in Burkina Faso who
were critical of the government. In December 2008, police in
Ouagadougou questioned leaders of a protest march that called for a
renewed investigation into the unsolved Zongo assassination. Among
the marchers was Jean-Claude Meda, the president of the Association
of Journalists of Burkina Faso.
See also
References
- Michel Izard, Moogo. L'émergence d'un espace étatique
ouest-africain au XVIe siècle
- Mahir Saul and Patrick Royer, West African Challenge to Empire,
2001
- Kingfisher Geography Encyclopedia. ISBN: 1-85613-582-9. Page
170
- Das, Dilip K. and Palmiotto, Michael J., World Police
Encyclopedia, Routledge, ISBN: 0415942500, 9780415942508,
(2005), pp. 139–141
- Das, pp. 139–141
- Das, pp. 139–141
- Das, pp. 139–141
- Das, pp. 139–141
- U.S. Dept. of State, Burkina Faso: Country Specific
Information
- Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Sub-Saharan Africa: Burkina Faso
- Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment - West
Africa, 15 April 2009
- "Burkina Faso". U.S. Department of State (June
2008).
-
http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/burkinafaso.pdf
- CIA World Factbook, Burkina Faso
- International Religious Freedom Report 2007:
Burkina Faso. United States Bureau of Democracy,
Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article
incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- Spaas,Lieve, "Burkina Faso," in The Francophone Film: A
Struggle for Identity, pp. 232–246. Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2000
- Turégano, Teresa Hoefert, African Cinema and Europe:
Close-Up on Burkina Faso, Florence: European Press Academic,
2005.
- http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf
- Radio Station World, Burkina Faso: Governmental Broadcasting
Agencies
- Committee to Protect Journalists, Burkina Faso
- Reporters Sans Frontieres, What’s Happening About The Inquiry Into Norbert
Zongo’s Death?
- Reporters Sans Frontieres, Outrageous Denial Of Justice 21 July
2006
- IFEX, Radio Station Temporarily Pulls Programme After
Host Receives Death Threats, 26 April 2007
- FreeMuse.org, Death threat against Reggae Radio Host, 3
May 2007
- Keita, Mohamed, Burkina Faso Police Question Zongo
Protesters, Committee to Protect Journalists, 15 December
2008
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