The
cello (plural
cellos or
celli — the
c is , as in the
ch
in "check", thus "chel-lo") is a
bowed
string instrument. The word
derives from the Italian
violoncello. A person who
plays a cello is called a cellist. The cello is used as a solo
instrument, in
chamber music, and as a
member of the
string section of an
orchestra. It is the second largest
bowed string instrument in the modern
symphony orchestra, the
double bass being the largest.
Description

A Cello
The name
Cello is an abbreviation of the
Italian violoncello, which means
"little
violone", referring to the
violone ("big viol"), the lowest-pitched instrument
of the
viol family, the group of string
instruments that were superseded by the
violin family. Thus, the name carries both an
augmentative "-one" ("big")
and a
diminutive "-cello"
("little"). By the turn of the twentieth century, it had grown
customary to abbreviate the name violoncello to 'cello, with the
apostrophe indicating the six missing prefix letters. It now is
acceptable to use the name "cello" without the apostrophe and as a
full designation. Cellos are tuned in fifths, starting with
C2 (two
octaves below
middle C) as
the lowest string, followed by G2, D3, and A3. It is tuned the same
way as the
viola, only an octave lower.
The cello is most closely associated with European classical music,
and has been described as the closest sounding instrument to the
human voice. The instrument is a part of the standard
orchestra and is the bass voice of the
string quartet, as well as being part of many
other
chamber groups. A large number
of
concertos and
sonatas have been written for the cello.
Among the most well-known
Baroque works for
the cello are
J. S. Bach's six unaccompanied
Suites. The
Prelude from the
First Suite is particularly famous. From the
Classical era, the two concertos by
Joseph Haydn in
C major and
D major stand out, as do the
five sonatas for cello and pianoforte of
Beethoven which span the important three periods
of his compositional evolution.
Romantic era repertoire includes the
Schumann Concerto, the
Dvořák Concerto as well as the
two sonatas and the
Double
Concerto by
Brahms. Compositions
from the early 20th century include
Elgar's Cello
Concerto in E minor,
Debussy's
Sonata for Cello and Piano
and unaccompanied cello sonatas by
Zoltán Kodály and
Paul Hindemith. The cello's versatility made
it popular with composers in the mid- to late twentieth century
such as
Prokofiev,
Shostakovich,
Britten,
Ligeti and
Dutilleux, encouraged by soloists who specialized
in contemporary music (such as
Siegfried
Palm and
Mstislav
Rostropovich) commissioning from and collaborating with
composers.
The instrument is less common in
popular
music, but is sometimes featured in
pop and
rock recordings,
examples of which are noted later in this article. The cello has
also recently appeared in major
hip-hop and
R & B performances, such as singers
Rihanna and
Ne-Yo's
performance at the
American Music
Awards. The instrument has also been modified for
Indian classical music by
Nancy Lesh and
Saskia Rao-de Haas.
Construction
The cello is typically made from wood, although other materials
such as
carbon fibre or aluminum may be
used. A traditional cello has a
spruce top,
with
maple for the back, sides, and neck.
Other woods, such as
poplar or
willow, are sometimes used for the back and sides.
Less expensive cellos frequently have tops and backs made of
laminated wood.
The top and back are traditionally hand-carved, though less
expensive cellos are often machine-produced. The sides, or ribs,
are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms. The cello
body has a wide top bout, narrow middle formed by two C-bouts, and
wide bottom bout, with the
bridge and
F
holes are just below the middle.
The top and back of the cello has decorative border inlay known as
purfling. While purfling is attractive, it
is also functional: if the instrument is struck, the purfling can
prevent cracking of the wood. A crack may form at the rim of the
instrument, but will spread no further. Without purfling, cracks
can spread up or down the top or back. Playing, traveling and the
weather all affect the cello and can increase a crack if purfling
is not in place. Less expensive instruments typically have painted
purfling.
Alternate materials
Cello manufacturer
Luis & Clark
constructs cellos from
carbon fibre.
Carbon fibre instruments are particularly suitable for outdoor
playing because of the strength of the material and its resistance
to humidity and temperature fluctuations. Luis & Clark has
produced over 600 such cellos, one of which is owned by
Yo-Yo Ma.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Aluminum Company of America
(Alcoa) as well as German luthier G.A. Pfretzschner produced an
untold number of aluminum cellos (in addition to aluminum double
basses and violins). An advertisement published in N.Y. Music
Service catalogue (1930) reads: "...made entirely of aluminum with
the exception of the fingerboard. They have many advantages over
the wood basses and violoncellos, as they cannot crack, split or
warp and are made to last forever ... possessing a tone quality
that is deep, resonant and responsive to the utmost degree.
Violoncello $150." Only a handful of aluminum cellos exist today: a
Pfretzschner played by modern classical cellist
Frances-Marie Uitti, another played by
bluegrass cellist Stan Young and a third played by progressive rock
cellist
Spaceduck.
Neck, pegbox, and scroll
Above the main body is the carved neck, which leads to a
pegbox and the
scroll.
The neck, pegbox, and scroll are normally carved out of a single
piece of wood. Attached to the neck and extending over the body of
the instrument is the fingerboard. The
nut is a raised piece of wood, where the
fingerboard meets the pegbox, which the strings rest on. The pegbox
houses four
tuning pegs, one for each
string. The pegs are used to tune the cello by either tightening or
loosening the string. The scroll is a traditional part of the cello
and all other members of the
violin
family.
Ebony is usually used for the
tuning pegs, fingerboard, and nut, but other hard woods, such as
boxwood or
rosewood,
can be used.
Strings
Strings on a cello have cores made
out of
gut (sheep or goat), metal, or
synthetic materials, such as
Perlon. Most
modern strings used today are also wound with metallic materials
like aluminum, titanium and chromium. Cellists may mix different
types of strings on their instruments. The pitches of the open
strings are C G D A (black note heads in the playing range figure
above), unless alternate tuning (
scordatura) is used.
Tailpiece and endpin
The
tailpiece and
endpin are found in the lower part of the cello. The
tailpiece is traditionally made of
ebony or
another hard wood, but can also be made of
plastic or
steel. It attaches
the strings to the lower end of the cello, and can have one or more
fine tuners. The endpin or spike is made of wood, metal or rigid
carbon fib and supports the cello in playing position. In the
Baroque period the cello was held between the calves. Around the
1830s, the Belgian cellist Auguste Adrien Servais introduced the
endpin and propagated its use. Modern endpins are retractable and
adjustable; older ones were removed when not in use. (The word
"endpin" sometimes also refers to the button of wood located at
this place in all instruments in the violin family, but this is
usually called "tailpin".
[657]) The sharp tip of the cello's endpin is
sometimes capped with a rubber tip that protects the tip from
dulling and prevents the cello from slipping on the floor.
Bridge and f-holes
The bridge of a cello, with a mute (the mute is not in use)
The
bridge holds the strings
above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the top of the
instrument and the soundpost inside (see below). The bridge is not
glued, but rather held in place by the tension of the strings. The
f-hole, named for their shape, are
located on either side of the bridge, and allow air to move in and
out of the instrument as part of the sound-production process. The
f-holes also act as access points to the interior of the cello for
repairs or maintenance. Sometimes a small hose containing a
water-soaked sponge, called a
Dampit, is
inserted through the f-holes, and serves as a humidifier.
Internal features
Internally, the cello has two important features: a
bass bar, which is glued to the underside of the
top of the instrument, and a round wooden
sound post, which is wedged between the top and
bottom plates. The bass bar, found under the bass foot of the
bridge, serves to support the cello's top and distribute the
vibrations. The sound post, found under the treble side of the
bridge, connects the back and front of the cello. Like the bridge,
the sound post is not glued, but is kept in place by the tensions
of the bridge and strings. Together, the bass bar and sound post
transfer the strings' vibrations to the top (front) of the
instrument (and to a lesser extent the back), acting as a
diaphragm to produce the instrument's
sound.
Glue
Cellos are constructed and repaired using
hide
glue, which is strong but reversible, allowing for disassembly
when needed. Tops may be glued on with diluted glue, since some
repairs call for the removal of the top. Theoretically, hide glue
is weaker than the body's wood, so as the top or back shrinks
side-to-side, the glue holding it will let go, avoiding a crack in
the plate.
Bow

A cello French bow held with the palm
facing down
Traditionally,
bows are made from
pernambuco or
brazilwood. Both come from
the same species of tree (
Caesalpina echinata), but
pernambuco, used for higher-quality bows, is the heartwood of the
tree and is darker in color than brazilwood (which is sometimes
stained to compensate). Pernambuco is a heavy, resinous wood with
great elasticity which makes it an ideal wood for instrument
bows.
Bows are also made from other materials, such as
carbon-fibre—stronger than wood—and fiberglass (often used to make
inexpensive, low-quality student bows). An average cello bow is
73 cm long (shorter than a violin or viola bow) 3 cm high
(from the frog to the stick) and 1.5 cm wide. The frog of a
cello bow typically has a rounded corner like that of a viola bow,
but is wider. A cello bow is roughly 10 grams heavier than a viola
bow, which in turn is roughly 10 grams heavier than a violin
bow.
Bow hair is traditionally
horsehair,
though synthetic hair, in varying colors, is also used. Prior to
playing, the musician tightens the bow by turning a screw to pull
the frog (the part of the bow under the hand) back, and increase
the tension of the hair.
Rosin is applied by
the player to make the hairs sticky. Bows need to be re-haired
periodically. Ideally a bow should be re-haired every year, but
this is not in great practice because of cost.
Baroque style (1600 - 1750) cello bows were
much thicker and were formed with a larger outward arch when
compared to modern cello bows. The inward arch of a modern cello
bow produces greater tension which in turn gives off a louder
sound.
History
The history of
bowed string
musical instruments in Europe dates back
to the 9th century with the
lira (
Greek: λύρα, Latin:
lūrā), the bowed instrument of the
Byzantine Empire, equivalent to the
rabāb of the Islamic Empires. The
Persian geographer
Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911) of the 9th
century, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited
the
Byzantine lira as a typical
instrument of the Byzantines along with the
urghun
(organ),
shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and
the
salandj. The
Byzantine
lira spread through Europe westward
and in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms
fiddle and
lira interchangeably when referring to
bowed instruments (Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009).
In the meantime the
Arab rabāb was introduced to the Western
Europe possibly through the Iberian Peninsula
and both bowed instruments spread widely throughout
Europe giving birth to various European bowed
instruments.
Over the centuries that followed, Europe continued to have two
distinct types of bowed instruments: one, relatively square-shaped,
held in the arms, known with the Italian term
Lira da
braccio (or
Viola da
braccio, meaning
viol for the arm), family of the
modern
violin; the other, with sloping
shoulders and held between the knees, known with the Italian term
Lira da gamba (or
viola da gamba, meaning
viol for the leg), family
of the
Byzantine lyra and the modern
Cello . During the
Renaissance the
gambas, were important and elegant instruments; they eventually
lost ground to the louder (and originally less aristocratic)
lira da braccio. However,
the
a gamba playing position remained popular to larger
instruments that could not be played with
a braccio
position.
The violoncello da spalla (sometimes "violoncello piccolo da
spalla" or "violoncello da span") was the first cello referred to
in print (by
Jambe de Fer in
1556). "
Violone" means a
larger "viola" (
viol),
while "-cello" in Italian is a diminutive and spalla means
"shoulder" in Italian so that violoncello da spalla suggest a
"little big violin" that may be held on the shoulder so that the
player could perform while walking or that the early, short-necked
instrument was hung across the shoulder by a strap.
Monteverdi referred to the instrument as "basso de viola da
braccio" in
Orfeo (1607). Although the first bass violin,
possibly invented by Amati as early as 1538, was most likely
inspired by the viol, it was created to be used in consorts with
the violin. The bass violin was actually often referred to as a
"violone," or "large viola," as were the viols of the same
period. Instruments that share features with both the bass violin
and the
viola de gamba appear in Italian art of the early
1500s...
The
invention of wire-wound strings
(fine wire around a thin gut core), around 1660 in Bologna
, allowed for
a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on
such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new
technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument
suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the
instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to
play
virtuosic passages. This instrument
had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not
as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be
doubled by
basses or
violones.
Around 1700, Italian players popularized the cello in northern
Europe, although the bass violin (basse de violon) continued to be
used for another two decades in France. Many existing bass violins
were literally cut down in size in order to convert them into
cellos according to the smaller pattern cello as developed by
Stradivarius, who also made a number of old pattern large cellos
(the 'Servais'). The bass violin remained the "most used"
instrument in England as late as 1740, where the violoncello was
still "not common." The sizes, names, and tunings of the cello
varied widely by geography and time. The size was not standardized
until around 1750.
Despite similarities to the
viola da gamba, the
cello is actually part of the
viola da
braccio family, meaning "viol of the arm", which includes,
among others, the
violin and
viola. Though paintings like
Bruegel's "The Rustic Wedding" and de
Fer in his
Epitome Musical suggest that the bass violin
had alternate playing positions, these were short-lived and the
more practical and ergonomic
a gamba position eventually
replaced them entirely.

A cello strung with gut strings.
Note the absence of fine-tuning pins on the tailpiece.
Baroque era cellos differed from the modern
instrument in several ways. The neck has a different form and angle
which matches the baroque bass-bar and stringing. Modern cellos
have an endpin at the bottom to support the instrument (and
transmit some of the sound through the floor), while Baroque cellos
are held only by the calves of the player. Modern bows curve in and
are held at the frog; Baroque bows curve out and are held closer to
the bow's point of balance. Modern strings normally have a metal
core, although some use a synthetic core; Baroque strings are made
of
gut, with the G and C strings wire-wound.
Modern cellos often have fine-tuners connecting the strings to the
tailpiece, which make it much easier to tune the instrument, but
such pins are rendered ineffective by the flexibility of the gut
strings used on Baroque cellos. Overall, the modern instrument has
much higher string tension than the Baroque cello, resulting in a
louder, more projecting tone, with fewer overtones.
No educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed
before the 18th century, and those that do exist contain little
value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental
technique. The earliest cello manual is
Michel Corrette's
Méthode, thèorique et
pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa
perfection (Paris, 1741).
Playing technique

Seated Cellist
Body position
The cello is usually played while seated. Its weight is supported
mainly by its
endpin or spike, which rests on
the floor. Sometimes, an endpin support is needed to prevent the
endpin from slipping on smooth surfaces called a rock stop. The
cello is steadied on the lower bout between the knees of the seated
player, and on the upper bout against the upper chest. The neck of
the cello is above the player's left shoulder, and the C-String
tuning peg is just behind the left ear. The
bow is drawn horizontally across the strings. In
early times, female cellists sometimes played side-saddle, since it
was considered improper for a lady to part her knees in public. A
player's
handedness does not alter the
way the cello is held or used. In exceedingly rare cases the cello
has been played in a mirror-image posture: this is usually because
of a physical disability of one of the player's arms or hands which
makes the required technique impossible for that side of the body.
In such a situation, the player must decide whether or not to
reverse the set-up of the cello (the string positions, bass-bar,
sound post, fingerboard shape, and bridge carving are all
asymmetrical).
Left hand technique
The position of the left hand fingers along the strings determine
the pitch of the note. The closer to the bridge that the string is
depressed, the higher in pitch will be the resulting sound, because
the vibrating string length has been shortened. In the
neck positions (which use just less than half of the
fingerboard, nearest the top of the instrument), the thumb rests on
the back of the neck; in
thumb
position (a general name for notes on the remainder of the
fingerboard) the thumb usually rests alongside the fingers on the
string and the side of the thumb is used to play notes. The fingers
are normally held curved with each knuckle bent, with the
fingertips in contact with the string. If a finger is required on
two (or more) strings at once to play perfect fifths (in double
stops or chords) it is used flat. In slower, or more expressive
playing, the contact point can move slightly away from the nail to
the pad of the finger, allowing a fuller vibrato.
Vibrato
Vibrato is a small oscillation in the pitch
of a note, usually considered expressive. It is created by a
partial rotation of the upper arm at the shoulder joint, which
translates into a linear oscillation of the lower arm. The fixed
point of contact of the fingertip on the string absorbs this motion
by rocking back and forth. It is this change in the attitude of the
fingertip to the string which causes the pitch to vary. Vibrato is
a key expressive device, and a well-developed vibrato technique is
an essential element of a modern cellist's skill. In some styles of
music, such as that of the
Romantic
period, vibrato may be used on almost every note. However, in other
styles, such as
Baroque repertoire, vibrato
is used only rarely, as an ornament. In any case, the choice of
whether to use vibrato, and how much, is normally a stylistic
decision on the part of the player. Typically, the lower the pitch
of the note played, the wider and slower the vibrato.
Harmonics
Harmonics played on the cello fall into
two classes; natural and artificial. Natural harmonics are produced
by lightly touching (but not depressing) the string with the finger
at certain places, and then bowing (or, rarely, plucking) the
string. For example, the halfway point of the string will produce a
harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered (open) string.
Natural harmonics only produce notes that are part of the
harmonic series for the string on
which they occur. Artificial harmonics (also called False
harmonics), in which the player depresses the string fully with one
finger while touching the same string lightly with another finger,
can produce any notes above middle C. They usually appear with the
touching note a perfect fourth above the
stopped note, which produces a sound two
octaves above the stopped note, although other intervals are
available. All harmonics produce a distinctive flute-like sound,
and are usually performed without vibrato.
Glissando
Glissando ("sliding", in Italian) is an
effect played by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard
without releasing the string. This causes the pitch to rise and
fall smoothly, without separate, discernible steps.
Right hand technique
In cello playing, the bow is much like the breath of a
wind instrument player. Arguably, it is the
major determinant in the expressiveness of the playing. The right
hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the
notes. The bow is drawn across the strings roughly halfway between
the end of the
fingerboard and the
bridge, in a direction perpendicular to the strings. The bow is
held with all five fingers of the right hand, the thumb opposite
the fingers and closer to the cellist's body. The shape of the hand
should resemble that of its relaxed state, with all fingers curved,
including the thumb. The transmission of weight from the arm to the
bow happens through the
pronation (inward
rotation) of the forearm, which pushes the index finger and to a
lesser degree the middle finger onto the bow. The necessary
counterforce is provided by the thumb. Depending upon the school of
training, the other two fingers are used in various degrees to help
maintain the angle of the bow to the string and are critical to
controlling the bow when it is off the string. (See also
spiccato).
In English, the terminology for bow direction (
down and
up) can be misleading. A downbow is drawn to the right of
the player, and an upbow to the left. A downbow is drawn by first
using the upper arm, then the forearm, then the wrist (turning
slightly inward) in order to maintain a straight stroke. An upbow
is drawn by moving first the forearm, then the upper arm, then the
wrist (pushing slightly upward). The bow is mostly used
perpendicular to the string being played. In order to perform
string changes the whole arm is either lowered or lifted, with as
little wrist movement as possible in order to maintain the angle to
the string. However, flexibility of the wrist is necessary when
changing the bow direction from up-bow to down-bow and vice versa.
For very fast bow movements, the wrist is used to accomplish the
horizontal movement of bow. For longer strokes, the arm is used as
well as the wrist.
Tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of
several factors. The three most important ones are: bow speed,
weight applied to the string, and point of contact of the bow hair
with the string. A good player will be capable of a very even tone,
and will counter the natural tendency to play with the most force
with the part of the bow nearest to the frog or heel, and the least
force near the tip. The closer to the bridge the string is bowed,
the more projecting and brighter the tone, with the extreme
(
sul ponticello) producing a metallic, shimmery sound. If
bowing closer to the fingerboard (
sul tasto), the sound
produced will be softer, more mellow, and less defined.
Double stops
Double stops involve the playing of two
notes at the same time. Two strings are fingered simultaneously,
and the bow is drawn so as to sound them both at once. Triple and
quadruple stops may also be played (in a "broken" fashion), but are
difficult to sustain because of the change in slope of the bridge.
To extend the technique in this area,
Frances-Marie Uitti has invented a
two-bow system: one bow plays above the strings and one below,
allowing for sustained triple and quadruple stops. However, this
technique is very rarely seen or used.
Pizzicato
In
pizzicato playing, the string is
plucked directly with the fingers or thumb. Usually this is done
with the right hand, while the bow is held away from the strings by
the rest of the hand or (for extended passages) set down. A single
string can be played
pizzicato, or double, triple, or
quadruple stops can be played. Occasionally, a player must bow one
string with the right hand and simultaneously pluck another with
the left. This is marked by a "+" above the note. Strumming of
chords is also possible, in guitar fashion.
Col legno
Col legno is the technique in which the
player uses the wood rather than the hair of the bow on the
strings; it takes two different forms,
col legno battuto
and
col legno tratto.
Col legno battuto is
performed as a percussive technique with no sustaining of the
sound. The much less common alternative is
col legno
tratto, wherein the wood is drawn across the string as the
hair is in a normal bow stroke. Some players refuse to use this
technique because of potential damage to the bow.
Spiccato
In
spiccato playing, the strings are not
"drawn" by the bow hair but struck by it, while still retaining
some horizontal motion, to generate a more percussive, crisp sound.
It may be performed by using the wrist to "dip" the bow into the
strings. Spiccato is usually associated with lively playing. On a
violin,
spiccato bowing comes off the string, but on a
cello, the wood of the bow may rise briskly up without the hair
actually leaving the string. While playing spiccato, the bow is
literally bouncing off the string. Cello players simply "dip" the
bow into the string, and touch it very fast, and then lift the bow
off the string.
Staccato
In
staccato, the player moves the bow a
small distance and stops it on the string, making a short sound,
the rest of the written duration being taken up by silence.
Legato
Legato is a technique where the notes are
smoothly connected without accents or breaks.
Sul ponticello/sul tasto
Sul ponticello "on the bridge" refers to bowing closer to
the bridge, while
sul tasto "on the fingerboard" calls for
bowing nearer the end of the fingerboard. Ponticello calls for more
bow weight and slower bow speed, and produces a "harder" sound,
with strong overtone content. Sul tasto, in extreme cases called
"flautando," produces a more flute-like sound, with more emphasis
on the fundamental frequency of the note, and softer
overtones.
Con/Senza sord.
This refers to using a mute, which is placed on the bridge to
mellow the tone, or to take it off.
Sizes

1/8 size cello with full size
cello
Standard-sized cellos are referred to as "full-size". However,
cellos come in smaller (fractional) sizes, from "7/8" and "3/4"
down to "1/16" sized cellos (e.g. 7/8, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/10,
1/16). The smaller-sized cellos are identical to standard cellos in
construction, range, and usage, but are simply 'scaled-down' for
the benefit of children and shorter adults. A "half-size" cello is
not actually half the size of a "full-size", but only slightly
smaller. Many smaller cellists prefer to play a "7/8" cello as the
hand stretches in the lower positions are less demanding. Although
rare, cellos in sizes larger than 4/4 do exist. Cellists with
unusually large hands may play a slightly larger than full-sized
cello. Cellos made before approximately 1700 tended to be
considerably larger than those made and commonly played
today.
Around 1680, string-making technology made lower pitches on shorter
strings possible. The cellos of
Stradivari, for example, can be clearly divided
into 2 models, with the style made before 1702 characterized by
larger instruments (of which only 3 examples are extant in their
original size and configuration), and the style made during and
after 1702, when Stradivari, presumably in response to the "new"
type of strings, began making cellos of a smaller size. This later
model is the one most commonly used by modern luthiers.
Approximate dimensions for 4/4 size cello |
Average size (cm) |
Average size (in) |
Approximate width horizontally from A peg to C peg ends |
16 |
6 - 5/16 |
Back length excluding half round where neck joins |
75.5 |
29 - 3/4 |
Upper bouts (shoulders) |
34 |
13 - 3/8 |
Lower bouts (hips) |
44 |
17 - 3/8 |
Bridge height |
9 |
3 - 9/16 |
Rib depth at shoulders including edges of front and back |
12.5 |
4 - 15/16 |
Rib depth at hips including edges |
12.8 |
5 - 1/16 |
Distance beneath fingerboard to surface of belly at neck
join |
2.2 |
7/8 |
Bridge to back total depth |
26.7 |
10 - 1/2 |
Overall height excluding end pin |
121 |
47 - 10/16 |
End pin unit and spike |
5.5 |
2 - 5/8 |
Accessories
There are many accessories for the cello.
- Cases are used to protect the cello and bow (or multiple bows)
when traveling and for safe storage. They are often made of carbon
fiber, fiber-glass, and less commonly wood.
- Rosin, made from conifer resin, is applied to
the bow hairs to increase the effectiveness of the friction, grip
or bite, and allow proper sound production. Rosin may have
additives to modify the friction such as beeswax, gold, silver or
tin.
- Endpin stops or straps (tradenames
include Rockstop and Black Hole) keep the cello from sliding if the
end pin does not have a rubber piece on the end (used on wood
floors) though in many cases a rubber piece will not suffice on
even a wood floor. Many Cellists often use a square or rectangle of
carpet that can be secured under the front two legs of the chair as
an endpin stop. This is however less likely to be seen in a
professional arena and more used in rehearsal or in private.Players
might even use their shoe to keep the endpin in place
- Wolf tone eliminators are
sometimes placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the
bridge in order to eliminate acoustic anomalies known as wolf tones or "wolfs".
- Mutes are used to change the sound
of the cello by reducing overtones.
Practice mutes (made of metal) significantly reduce the
instrument's volume (they are also referred to as "hotel mutes").
The most common mute is a rubber disc with two holes to fit the two
middle strings. It sits just after the bridge and has a flap that
can be placed over the top of the bridge to mute the vibrations
travelling down it to the sound post inside the cello. These are
especially used due to their simplicity and can be taken off or put
on very quickly due to the fact that they can be stored on the
strings past the bridge.
- Metronomes provide a steady tempo by sounding out a certain number of beats per
minute. They are adjustable to fit the tempo of the piece. Many
models can also produce a tuning pitch of A4
(440 Hz), among others. These can, of course, be used for all
instruments.
- Humidifiers are used to control and
stabilize the humidity around and inside the cello and are popular
with traveling cellists. Often placed inside the cello itself or
inside the case. Some players will not use humidifiers inside their
cellos because they have the potential to drip, which may cause
damage to the cello
- Tuners are sometimes used to
tune the instrument. A tuner indicates if a
played note is sharp or flat. Tuners are used by musicians who
cannot memorize pitches, or students.
Current use
Orchestral
Cellos are part of the standard
symphony orchestra. Usually, the
orchestra includes eight to twelve cellists. The cello section, in
standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the
audience's right) in the front, opposite the first violin section.
However, some orchestras and conductors prefer switching the
positioning of the viola and cello sections. The
principal, or "first chair" cellist is the section leader,
determining bowings for the section in conjunction with other
string principals, and playing solos. Principal players always sit
closest to the audience.
The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic
works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli
or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the harmony for
the orchestra. On many occasions, the cello section will play the
melody for a brief period of time, before returning to the harmony.
There are also cello
concertos, which are
orchestral pieces in which a featured, solo cellist is accompanied
by an entire orchestra.
Solo
There are numerous
cello concertos -
where a solo cello is accompanied by an
orchestra - notably 25 by
Vivaldi, 12 by
Boccherini,
3 by
C.P.E. Bach, 2 by
Haydn, 2 by
Saint-Saëns, 2 by
Dvořák, and one each by
Schumann,
Lalo
and
Elgar.
Beethoven's
Triple Concerto for Cello,
Violin and Piano and
Brahms'
Double Concerto for Cello
and Violin are also part of the concertante repertoire although in
both cases the cello shares solo duties with at least one other
instrument. Moreover, several composers wrote large-scale pieces
for cello and orchestra, which are concertos in all but name. Some
familiar "concertos" are
Strauss'
tone poem Don Quixote,
Tchaikovsky's
Variations on a Rococo Theme,
Bloch's
Schelomo and
Bruch's
Kol Nidrei.
In the 20th century, the cello repertoire grew immensely. This was
partly due to the influence of virtuoso cellist Mstislav
Rostropovich who inspired, commissioned and/or premiered dozens of
new works. Among these,
Prokofiev's
Symphonia Concertante,
Britten's
Cello Symphony and the
concertos of
Shostakovich,
Lutosławski and
Dutilleux have already become part of the
standard repertoire. In addition,
Hindemith,
Barber,
Honegger,
Villa-Lobos,
Myaskovsky,
Walton,
Glass,
Rodrigo,
Arnold,
Penderecki and
Ligeti also wrote major
concertos for
other cellists, notably for
Gregor
Piatigorsky,
Siegfried Palm and
Julian Lloyd Webber.
There are also many
sonatas for cello
and
piano. Those written by
Beethoven,
Mendelssohn,
Chopin,
Brahms,
Grieg,
Rachmaninoff,
Debussy,
Fauré,
Shostakovich,
Prokofiev,
Poulenc,
Carter and
Britten are the most famous.
Finally, there are several pieces for
cello solo, most importantly
J.S. Bach's six
Suites for Cello (arguably the most
important cello pieces),
Zoltán
Kodály's
Sonata for Solo Cello and
Britten's three
Cello Suites. Other notable examples
include
Dutilleux'
Trois
Strophes sur le Nom de Sacher,
Berio's
Les Mots Sont Allés (both
part of a series of twelve compositions for solo cello commissioned
by Rostropovich for Swiss conductor
Paul
Sacher's 70th birthday),
Ligeti's
Sonata,
Carter's two
Figments and
Xenakis'
Nomos
Alpha and
Kottos.
Quartets and other ensembles
The cello is a member of the traditional
string quartet as well as string
quintets,
sextet or
trios and
other mixed ensembles.There are also pieces written for two, three,
four or more cellos; this type of ensemble is also called a "cello
choir" and its sound is familiar from the introduction to
Rossini's
William
Tell Overture as well as Zaccharias' prayer scene in
Verdi's
Nabucco. As a
self-sufficient ensemble, its most famous repertoire is
Villa-Lobos' first of his
Bachianas Brasileiras for cello
ensemble (the fifth is for soprano and 8 cellos). Other examples
are
Offenbach's cello duets,
quartet, and sextet, and
Boulez'
Messagesquisse for 7 cellos. The
Twelve Cellists
of the
Berlin Philharmonic
Orchestra (or "the Twelve" as they have since taken to being
called) specialize in this repertoire and have commissioned many
works, including arrangements of well-known popular songs.
Popular music, Jazz and Neoclassical
Though the cello is less common in
popular
music than in classical music, it is sometimes featured in
pop and
rock
recordings. The cello is rarely part of a group's standard lineup
(though like its cousin the
violin it is
becoming more common in mainstream pop).
In the 1960s, artists such as
the
Beatles and
Cher used the cello in popular
music, in songs such as "
Bang Bang ," "
Eleanor Rigby" and "
Strawberry Fields Forever".
Jack Bruce, who had originally studied
music on a performance scholarship for cello, played a prominent
cello part in "As You Said" on the
Wheels
of Fire studio album (1968). In the 1970s, the
Electric Light Orchestra enjoyed
great commercial success taking inspiration from so-called
"Beatlesque" arrangements, adding the cello (and violin) to the
standard rock combo line-up and in 1978 the UK based rock band,
Colosseum II, collaborated with cellist
Julian Lloyd Webber on the recording
Variations. Most notably,
Pink Floyd included a cello solo in their 1970
epic instrumental
Atom Heart
Mother. Bass guitarist
Mike
Rutherford of
Genesis was
originally a cellist and included some cello parts in their
Foxtrot album.
Established non-traditional cello groups include
Apocalyptica, a group of Finnish cellists best
known for their versions of
Metallica
songs,
Rasputina, a group of two
female cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled
with Gothic music,
Von Cello, a cello
fronted rock power trio,
Break of
Reality who mix elements of classical music with the more
modern rock and metal genre, and Jelloslave (
[658]) a
Minneapolis based Cello duo with two percussionists. These groups
are examples of a style that has become known as
cello rock. The crossover string quartet
bond also includes a cellist. Silenzium and
Vivacello are Russian (Novosibirsk) groups playing rock and metal
and having more and more popularity in Siberia.
More recent bands using the cello are
Aerosmith,
Nirvana,
Oasis,
Murder by Death,
Cursive,
Smashing Pumpkins, and
OneRepublic. So-called "chamber pop" artists
like
Kronos Quartet, The Vitamin
String Quartet and
Margot and the Nuclear So and
So's have also recently made cello common in modern alternative
rock. Heavy metal band
System of a
Down has also made use of the cello's rich sound. The indie
rock band
The Stiletto Formal
are known for using a cello as a major staple of their sound,
similarly, the indie rock band
Canada employs two cello players in
their lineup. The orch-rock group,
The Polyphonic Spree, which has
pioneered the use of stringed and symphonic instruments, employs
the cello in very creative ways for many of their
"psychedelic-esque" melodies.
In jazz, bassists
Oscar Pettiford
and
Harry Babasin were among the first
to use the cello as a solo instrument; both tuned their instrument
in fourths, an octave above the double bass.
Fred Katz (who was not a bassist) was one of the
first notable jazz cellists to use the instrument's standard tuning
and arco technique. Contemporary jazz cellists include
Abdul Wadud,
Diedre
Murray,
Ron Carter,
Dave Holland,
David Darling,
Lucio Amanti,
Akua
Dixon,
Ernst Reijseger,
Fred Lonberg-Holm,
Tom
Cora, Vincent Courtois, Jean-Charles Capon, and
Erik Friedlander.
Modern musical theatre pieces like Jason Robert Brown's
The Last Five Years, Duncan Sheik's
Spring Awakening, Adam
Guettel's
Floyd Collins, and
Ricky Ian Gordon's
My Life with
Albertine use small string ensembles (including solo cellos) to
a prominent extent.
The cello can also be used in bluegrass and folk music, with
notable players including
Ben Sollee of
the
Sparrow Quartet and the "Cajun
cellist"
Sean Grissom as well as
Damien Rice.
Lindsay Mac is becoming well known for playing
the cello like a guitar, with her cover of
The Beatles Blackbird a big hit on
The Bob & Tom Show.
Instrument makers
Cellos are made by
luthiers, specialists in
building and repairing stringed instruments, ranging from guitars
to violins. The following luthiers are notable for the cellos they
have produced:
Cellists
A person who plays the cello is called a
cellist. For a
list of notable cellists, see the
list
of cellists and
:Category:Cellists.
Famous cellos
Specific instruments are, or become, famous, for a variety of
reasons. An instrument's notability may arise from its age, the
fame of its maker, its physical appearance, its acoustic
properties, and its use by notable performers. The most famous
instruments are generally known for all of these things. The most
highly prized instruments are now collector's items, and are priced
beyond the reach of most musicians. These instruments are typically
owned by some kind of organization or investment group, which loans
the instrument to a performer for his or her use. (For example, the
Davidov Stradivarius, which is
currently in the possession of one of the most widely-known living
cellists,
Yo-Yo Ma, is actually owned by
the Vuitton Foundation.)
Some notable cellos:
- the "King", by Andrea Amati, is one of the oldest known cellos,
built between 1538 and 1560. It is in the collection of the National Music Museum in South Dakota
.
- Servais
Stradivarius is in the collection of the Smithsonian
Institution
, Washington DC
- Davidov Stradivarius,
played by Jacqueline du Pré,
currently played by Yo-Yo Ma
- Barjansky Stradivarius,
played by Julian Lloyd Webber
- Bonjour Stradivarius,
played by Soo Bae
- Paganini-Ladenburg
Stradivarius, played by Clive
Greensmith of the Tokyo String
Quartet
- Duport Stradivarius, until
recently played by the late Mstislav Rostropovich
- Piatti Stradivarius, 1720, played by Carlos Prieto
Media
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Listening