The
chariot is the earliest and simplest type of
carriage, used in both peace and war as the
chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Chariots were built in
Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original chariot was a fast,
light, open, two or four-
wheeled conveyance
drawn by two or more
horses hitched side by
side. The car was little else than a floor with a waist-high
semicircular guard in front. The chariot, driven by a
charioteer, was used for
ancient warfare during the
Bronze and
Iron Ages,
armor being provided by shields. The vehicle continued to be used
for
travel,
processions
and in
games and
races after it had been superseded
militarily. Militarily, the chariot became obsolete as horse
breeding efforts produced an animal that was large enough to ride
into battle.
The word "chariot" comes from Latin
carrus, which itself
was a loan from
Gaulish. A chariot of war or
of triumph was called a
car. In
ancient Rome and other
ancient Mediterranean
countries a
biga was a two-horse chariot, a
triga used three horses and a
quadriga was drawn by four horses abreast.
Obsolete terms for chariot include
chair,
charet
and
wain.
The critical invention that allowed the construction of light,
horse-drawn chariots for use in battle was the
spoked wheel.
Cavalry had been
in use in Central Asia since 3000 BC and eventually replaced
chariotry (the part of a military force that
fought from chariots).
The earliest spoke-wheeled chariots date to ca. 2000 BC and their
usage peaked around 1300 BC (see
Battle
of Kadesh).
Chariots ceased to have military importance
in the 4th century BC, but chariot
races continued to be popular in Constantinople
until the 6th century CE
(AD).
Early wheeled vehicles in Sumer
The chariot probably originated in
Mesopotamia about 3000 BC. The earliest
depiction of vehicles in the context of warfare is on the
Standard of Ur in southern Mesopotamia,
ca. 2500 BC. These are more properly called
wagons or
carts, still
double-axled and pulled by oxen or
tamed
asses before the introduction of horses
ca. 2000 BC.
Although sometimes carrying a spearman along with the
charioteer (driver), such heavy proto-chariots, borne on
solid wooden wheels and covered with skins, may have been part of
the baggage train (e.g., during royal funeral processions) rather
than vehicles of battle in themselves . The Sumerians had also a
lighter, two-wheeled type of chariot, pulled by four asses, but
still with solid wheels. The spoked wheel did not appear in
Mesopotamia until the mid-2000s BC.
Early Indo-Iranians
The
earliest fully developed chariots known are from the chariot burials of the Andronovo (Timber-Grave) sites of the
Sintashta-Petrovka culture in
modern Russia
and Kazakhstan
from around 2000 BC. This culture is at
least partially derived from the earlier
Yamna culture. It built heavily fortified
settlements, engaged in
bronze metallurgy
on a scale hitherto unprecedented and practiced complex burial
rituals reminiscent of
Aryan rituals known
from the
Rigveda. The
Sintashta-Petrovka chariot burials yield spoke-wheeled chariots.
The
Andronovo culture over the next
few centuries spread across the steppes from the Urals
to the
Tien
Shan
, likely corresponding to early Indo-Iranian cultures which eventually spread
to Iran
, Pakistan
and parts of
India
in the course of the 2nd millennium BC.
Chariots figure prominently in Indo-Iranian mythology. Chariots are
also an important part of both
Hindu
and
Persian mythology, with most
of the gods in their
pantheon
portrayed as riding them. The
Sanskrit word
for a chariot is
ratha, a collective to a
Proto-Indo-European word for
"wheel" that also resulted in
Latin
rota and is also known from Germanic, Celtic and
Baltic.
Ancient Near East
Some scholars argue that the chariot was most likely a product of
the ancient Near East early in the 2nd millennium BC.
Hittites
The oldest testimony of chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is
the
Old Hittite Anitta text (18th century BC), mentioning 40
teams of horses (40
?Í-IM-DÌ ANŠE.KUR.RA
?I.A)
at the siege of
Salatiwara. Since only
teams are mentioned rather than explicitly
chariots, the presence of chariots in the 18th century BC
is considered somewhat uncertain. The first certain attestation of
chariots in the Hittite Empire dates to the late 17th century BC
(
Hattusili I). A Hittite horse training
text survives, attributed to
Kikkuli
the Mitanni (15th century BC).
The
Hittites were renowned charioteers.
They developed a new chariot design that had lighter wheels, with
four spokes rather than eight, and which held three warriors
instead of two. It could hold 3 warriors as the wheel was placed in
the middle of the chariot and not at the back as in the Egyptian
chariots. Hittite prosperity largely depended on their control of
trade routes and natural resources, specifically metals. As the
Hittites gained dominion over Mesopotamia, tensionsflared among the
neighboring
Assyrians,
Hurrians and
Egyptians.
Under
Suppiluliuma I, the Hittites
conquered Kadesh and eventually the whole of
Syria
. The
Battle of
Kadesh in 1299 BC is likely to have been the largest chariot
battle ever fought, involving some five thousand chariots.
Egypt
The
chariot, together with the horse itself, was introduced to Egypt
by the
Hyksos invaders in the 16th century BC and
undoubtedly contributed to their military success. In the
remains of
Egyptian and
Assyrian art there are numerous
representations of chariots, from which it may be seen with what
richness they were sometimes ornamented. The chariots of the
Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the bow was the principal arm of
attack, were richly mounted with quivers full of arrows. The
Egyptians invented the yoke saddle for their chariot horses in ca.
1500 BC. The best preserved examples of Egyptian chariots are the
four specimens from the tomb of
Tutankhamun.
Persia
The
Persians succeeded Elam
in the mid
1st millennium. They may have been the first to yoke four
horses (rather than two) to their chariots. They also used scythed
chariots.
Cyrus the Younger
employed these chariots in large numbers.
Herodotus mentions that the Libyans and the
Indus
satrapy supplied cavalry and chariots to Xerxes the Great' army. However, by
this time
cavalry was far more effective and
agile than the chariot, and the defeat of
Darius III at the
Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), where the
army of Alexander simply opened their lines and let the chariots
pass and attacked them from behind, marked the end of the era of
chariot warfare.
Armenia
In the Armenian Kingdom of Van (
Urartu), the
chariot was used by the nobility and the military.
In Erebuni (Yerevan
), Armenia
King
Argishti of Urartu is depicted riding on a chariot which is dragged
by two horses. The chariot has two wheels and each wheel has
about eight spokes. This type of chariot was used around 800
BC.
Chariots in the Bible
- See also Merkabah.
Chariots are frequently mentioned in the
Old Testament, particularly by the prophets,
as instruments of war or as symbols of power or glory. First
mentioned in the story of
Joseph (
Genesis 50:9), "
Iron chariots" are mentioned also in
Joshua (17:16,18) and
Judges (1:19,4:3,13) as weapons of the
Canaanites.
1
Samuel 13:5 mentions chariots of the
Philistines, who are sometimes identified with
the
Sea Peoples or
early Greeks. Such examples from the
KJV here include:
- And Solomon gathered chariots and horsemen: and he had a
thousand and four hundred chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen,
which he placed in the chariot cities, and with the king at
Jerusalem.
- And the LORD was with Judah; and he drave out the
inhabitants of the mountain; but could not drive out the
inhabitants of the valley, because they had chariots of
iron.
- Song of Solomon 1:9 I have
compared thee, O my love, to a company of horses in Pharaoh's
chariots.
- Isaiah 2:7 Their land also is
full of silver and gold, neither is there any end of their
treasures; their land is also full of horses, neither is there any
end of their chariots.
- Jeremiah 4:13 Behold, he
shall come up as clouds, and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind:
his horses are swifter than eagles. Woe unto us! for we
are ruined.
- Acts 8:37-38 Then Philip said,
"If you believe with all your heart, you may." And he
answered and said, "I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of
God." So he commanded the chariot to stand still.
And both Philip and the eunuch went down into the water, and he
baptized him.
India
Chariots figure prominently in the
Rigveda,
evidencing their presence in India in the 2nd millennium BC. They
were most likely brought to the region by the
Indo-European-speaking migrants from Central
Asia, probably derived in part from their moving wagons. Among
Rigvedic deities, notably
Ushas (the dawn) rides in a chariot, as well as
Agni in his function as a messenger between
gods and men.
There are
a few depictions of chariots among the petroglyphs in the sandstone of the Vindhya
range. Two depictions of chariots are found in
Morhana Pahar, Mirzapur
district. One is shows a team of two horses,
with the head of a single driver visible. The other one is drawn by
four horses, has six-spoked wheels, and shows a driver standing up
in a large chariot-box. This chariot is being attacked, with a
figure wielding a shield and a mace standing at its path, and
another figure armed with bow and arrow threatening its right
flank.
It
has been suggested that the drawings record a story, most probably
dating to the early centuries BC, from some center in the area of
the Ganges
–Jamuna plain into the territory of still Neolithic
hunting tribes. The drawings would then be a representation
of foreign technology, comparable to the Arnhem Land
Aboriginal
rock paintings depicting Westerners. The very realistic
chariots carved into the Sanchi
stupas are dated to roughly the 1st
century.
The
scythed chariot was invented by
the King of
Magadha,
Ajatashatru around 475 BC. He used these
chariots against the
Licchavi. A
scythed chariot was a war chariot with a
sharp, sickle-shaped blade or blades mounted on each end of the
axle. The blades, used as weapons, extended
horizontally for a meter on the sides of the chariot.
China
The
earliest chariot burial site in China, discovered in 1933 at
Hougang
, Anyang of central China's Henan
Province,
dates to the rule of King Wu Ding of the
late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1200
BC). But chariots may have been known before, from as early
as the
Xia Dynasty (17th century BC)
[7487]. During the Shang dynasty, members of
the royalty were buried with a complete household and servants,
including a chariot, horses, and a charioteer. Shang chariot was
often drawn by two horses, but four are occasionally found in
burials. The crew consisted of an archer, a driver, and sometimes a
third armed with a spear or
dagger-axe.
During the 8th to 5th centuries BC, Chinese use of chariots reached
its peak. Although they appeared in greater number, infantry often
defeated them in battle.
Jacques Gernet claims that the
Zhou
dynasty, which conquered the Shang, made more use of the
chariot than the Shang and "invented a new kind of harness with
four horses abreast".
The chariot became obsolete after the Age of the
Warring States; the main reasons were
the invention of the
crossbow, the adoption
of standard cavalry units, and the adaptation of nomadic cavalry
(
mounted archery), which was more
effective. Chariots would continue to serve as command posts for
officers during the Qin and Han Dynasty though.
Europe
Northern Europe
The
Trundholm sun chariot is
dated to ca. 1400 BC (see
Nordic
Bronze Age). The horse drawing the solar disk runs on four
wheels, and the Sun itself on two. All wheels have four spokes. The
"chariot" consists solely of the solar disk, the axle, and the
wheels, and it is unclear if the sun is imagined as being itself a
chariot, or as riding in a chariot. The presence of a model of a
horse-drawn vehicle on two spoked wheels in Northern Europe at such
an early time is in any case astonishing.
In addition to the Trundholm chariot, there are a number of
petroglyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age
showing chariots, such as on one of the slabs of stone in a
double burial from c. 1000 BC,
showing a chariot with two four-spoked wheels drawn by a team of
two horses.
The use of the
composite bow from
chariots is not attested in northern Europe.
Central Europe and Britain and Ireland
The
Celts were famous chariot-makers, and the
English word
car is believed to be derived, via
Latin carrum, from
Gaulish karros (English
chariot
itself is from 13th century
French
charriote, an augmentative of the same word).
Some 20 Iron Age chariot
burials have been excavated in Britain
, dating roughly from between 500 BC and 100 BC,
virtually all of them in East
Yorkshire, with the exception of one find of 2001 from Newbridge
, 10 km west of Edinburgh
.
The Celtic chariot (may have been called
carpentom) was
drawn by a team of two horses, and measured approximately 2 m
(6.56 ft) in width and 4 m (13 ft) in length. The
one-piece iron rims for chariot wheels were probably a Celtic
invention. Apart from the iron wheel rims and iron fittings of the
hub, it was constructed from wood and wicker-work. In some
instances, iron rings reinforced the joints. Another Celtic
innovation was the free-hanging axle, suspended from the platform
with rope. This resulted in a much more comfortable ride on bumpy
terrain. There is evidence from French coins of a leather
'suspension' system for the central box, and a complex system of
knotted cords for its attachment; this has informed recent working
reconstructions by archaeologists.
British chariots were open in front.
Julius Caesar provides the only significant
eyewitness report of British chariot warfare: "XXXIII.--Their mode
of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about
in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the
ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the
noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in
between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on
foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance
from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if
their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may
have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in
battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of
infantry; and by daily practice and exercise attain to such
expertness that they are accustomed, even on a declining and steep
place, to check their horses at full speed, and manage and turn
them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on the yoke,
and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to their
chariots again."
Chariots play an important role in
Irish
mythology surrounding the hero
Cú
Chulainn. The Celts in the Bronze Age used an ancient
four-spoked wheel design called a
sun
cross or
wheel cross to represent the
chariot of the sun.
Chariots could also be used for ceremonial purposes. According to
Tacitus (
Annals 14.35),
Boudica, queen of the
Iceni and
a number of other tribes in a formidable uprising against the
occupying Roman forces, addressed her troops from a chariot in 61
AD:
- "Boudicca curru filias prae se vehens, ut quamque nationem
accesserat, solitum quidem Britannis feminarum ductu bellare
testabatur"
- Boudicca, with her daughters before her in a chariot, went
up to tribe after tribe, protesting that it was indeed usual for
Britons to fight under the leadership of women.
The last mention of chariotry in battle seems to be at the
Battle of Mons Graupius, somewhere
in modern Scotland, in 84 AD. From
Tacitus
(
Agricola 1.35 -36) "The
plain between resounded with the noise and with the rapid movements
of chariots and cavalry." The chariots did not win even their
initial engagement with the Roman auxiliaries: "Meantime the
enemy's cavalry had fled, and the charioteers had mingled in the
engagement of the infantry."
Southern Europe
The earliest records of chariots are the arsenal inventories of the
Mycenaean palaces, as described in
Linear B tablets from the 15th-14th
centuries BC. The tablets distinguish between "assembled" and
"disassembled" chariots.
Herodotus reports that chariots were widely used
in the Pontic
-Caspian
steppe by the Sigynnae.
The only
Etruscan chariot found intact dates
to ca. 530 BC, and was uncovered as part of a chariot burial at Monteleone
di Spoleto
. Currently in the collection of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art
[7488], it is decorated with bronze plates decorated
with detailed low-relief scenes, commonly interpreted as depicting
episodes from the life of Achilles [7489]. Possibly unique to Etruscan chariots,
the Monteleone chariot's wheels have nine spokes. As part of a
chariot burial, the Monteleone chariot may have been intended
primarily for ceremonial use and may not be representative of
Etruscan chariots in general.
Greece
The
classical Greeks had a (still not
very effective) cavalry arm, and the rocky
terrain of the Greek mainland
was unsuited for wheeled vehicles.
Consequently, in historical Greece the chariot was never used to
any extent in war. Nevertheless, the chariot retained a high status
and memories of its era were handed down in
epic poetry.
Linear B
tablets from
Mycenaean palaces record
large inventories of chariots, sometimes with specific details as
to how many chariots were assembled or not (i.e. stored in modular
form). Later the vehicles were used in games and processions,
notably for races at the
Olympic and
Panathenaic Games and other public
festivals in ancient Greece, in
hippodromes and in contests called
agons. They were also used in
ceremonial functions, as when a
paranymph, or friend of a bridegroom, went
with him in a chariot to fetch the bride home.
Greek chariots were made to be drawn by two
horses attached to a central pole.
If two additional
horses were added, they were attached on each side of the main pair
by a single bar or trace fastened to the front or
prow of the chariot, as may be seen on two prize vases in the British Museum
from the Panathenaic
Games at Athens,
Greece
, in which the driver is seated with feet resting on
a board hanging down in front close to the legs of the
horses. The biga itself consists of a seat resting on the
axle, with a rail at each side to protect the driver from the
wheels. Greek chariots appear to have lacked any other attachment
for the horses, which would have made turning difficult.
The body or
basket of the chariot rested directly on the
axle (called
beam) connecting the two
wheels. There was no
suspension, making this an
uncomfortable form of transport. At the front and sides of the
basket was a semicircular guard about 3 ft (1 m) high, to give
some protection from enemy attack. At the back the basket was open,
making it easy to mount and dismount. There was no seat, and
generally only enough room for the driver and one passenger.
The central pole was probably attached to the middle of the axle,
though it appears to spring from the front of the basket. At the
end of the pole was the
yoke, which consisted
of two small
saddles fitting the necks of
the horses, and fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides
this the harness of each horse consisted of a
bridle and a pair of
reins.
The reins were mostly the same as those in use in the 19th century,
and were made of leather and ornamented with studs of ivory or
metal. The reins were passed through rings attached to the
collar bands or yoke, and were long enough to
be tied round the waist of the charioteer to allow for
defense.
The wheels and basket of the chariot were usually of wood,
strengthened in places with bronze or iron. They had from four to
eight spokes and tires of bronze or iron.
Most other nations of this time had chariots of similar design to
the Greeks, the chief differences being the mountings.
According to Greek mythology the chariot was invented by
Erichthonius of Athens to conceal his
feet, which were those of a dragon.
The most notable appearance of the chariot in Greek mythology
occurs when
Phaëton, the son of
Helios, in an attempt to drive the chariot of
the sun, managed to set the earth on fire. This story led to the
archaic meaning of a
phaeton as one who drives a chariot
or coach, especially at a reckless or dangerous speed.
Plato, in his
Chariot
Allegory, depicted a chariot drawn by two horses, one well
behaved and the other troublesome, representing opposite impulses
of human nature; the task of the charioteer, representing reason,
was to stop the horses from going different ways and to guide them
towards enlightenment.
The
Greek word for chariot, ἅρμα,
hárma, is also used nowadays to denote a
tank, properly called άρμα μάχης,
árma mákhēs,
literally a "combat chariot".
Rome
The
Romans probably borrowed chariot
racing from the Etruscans, who would themselves have borrowed it
either from the Celts or from the Greeks, but the Romans were also
influenced directly by the Greeks especially after they conquered
mainland Greece in 146 BC. In the Roman Empire, chariots were not
used for warfare, but for
chariot
racing, especially in
circi, or for triumphal processions,
when they could be drawn by as many as ten horses or even by dogs,
tigers, or ostriches. There were four divisions, or
factiones, of charioteers, distinguished by the color of
their costumes: the red, blue, green and white teams.
The main centre of
chariot racing was the Circus Maximus
, situated in the valley between the Palatine
and Aventine
Hills in Rome. The track could hold 12
chariots, and the two sides of the track were separated by a raised
median termed the
spina.
Chariot races continued to enjoy great
popularity in Byzantine times, in
the Hippodrome of Constantinople
, even after the Olympic
Games had been disbanded, until their decline after the
Nika riots in the 6th century.The
starting gates were known as the Carceres.
An ancient Roman car or chariot drawn by four horses abreast
together with the horses drawing it was called a
Quadriga, from the Latin
quadrijugi
(of a team of four). The term sometimes meant instead the four
horses without the chariot or the chariot alone. A three-horse
chariot, or the three-horse team drawing it, was a
triga,
from
trijugi (of a team of three).
See also
Notes
References
- Anthony, D. W., & Vinogradov, N. B., Birth of the
Chariot, Archaeology vol.48, no.2, Mar & April 1995,
36-41
- Anthony, David W., 1995, Horse, wagon & chariot:
Indo-European languages and archaeology, Antiquity
Sept/1995
- Di Cosmo, Nicolo, The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial
China, Cambridge History of Ancient China ch. 13
(pp. 885–966).
- Litauer, M.A., & Grouwel, J.H., The Origin of the True
Chariot', "Antiquity" vol.70, No.270, December 1996,
934-939.
- Sparreboom, M., Chariots in the Veda, Leiden
(1985).
Further reading
- Anthony, David W. The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How
Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern
World Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007 (ISBN
9780691058870).
- Chamberlin, J. Edward. Horse: How the horse has shaped
civilizations. N.Y.: United Tribes Media Inc., 2006 (ISBN
0-9742405-9-1).
- Cotterell, Arthur. Chariot: From chariot to tank, the
astounding rise and fall of the world's first war machine.
Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005 (ISBN
1-58567-667-5).
- Crouwel, Joost H. Chariots and other means of land
transport in Bronze Age Greece (Allard Pierson Series, 3).
Amsterdam: [Allard Pierson Museum], 1981 (ISBN 90-71211-03-7).
- Crouwel, Joost H. Chariots and other wheeled vehicles in
Iron Age Greece (Allard Pierson Series, 9). Amsterdam:[Allard
Pierson Museum]:, 1993 (ISBN 90-71211-21-5).
- Drews, Robert. The coming of the Greeks: Indo-European
conquests in the Aegean and the Near East. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1988 (hardcover, ISBN 0-691-03592-X);
1989 (paperback, ISBN 0-691-02951-2).
- Drews, Robert. The end of the Bronze Age: Changes in
warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1993 (hardcover, ISBN 0-691-04811-8); 1995
(paperback, ISBN 0-691-02591-6).
- Drews, Robert. Early riders: The beginnings of mounted
warfare in Asia and Europe. N.Y.: Routledge, 2004 (ISBN
0-415-32624-9).
- Fields, Nic; Brian Delf (illustrator). Bronze Age War
Chariots (New Vanguard). Oxford; New York: Osprey Publishing,
2006 (ISBN 978-1841769448).
- Greenhalg, P A L. Early Greek warfare; horsemen and
chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages. Cambridge [Eng.]
University Press, 1973. (ISBN 9780521200561).
- Kulkarni, Raghunatha Purushottama. Visvakarmiya
Rathalaksanam: Study of Ancient Indian Chariots: with a historical
note, references, Sanskrit text, and translation in English.
Delhi: Kanishka Publishing House, 1994 (ISBN 978-8173-91004-3)
- Littauer, Mary A.; Crouwel, Joost H. Chariots and related
equipment from the tomb of Tutankhamun (Tutankhamun's Tomb
Series, 8). Oxford: The Griffith Institute, 1985 (ISBN
0-900416-39-4).
- Littauer, Mary A.; Crouwel, Joost H.; Raulwing, Peter (Editor).
Selected writings on chariots and other early vehicles, riding
and harness (Culture and history of the ancient Near East, 6).
Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2002 (ISBN 90-04-11799-7).
- Moorey, P.R.S. "The Emergence of the Light, Horse-Drawn Chariot
in the Near-East c. 2000–1500 B.C.", World
Archaeology, Vol. 18, No. 2. (1986),
pp. 196–215.
- Piggot, Stuart. The earliest wheeled transport from the
Atlantic Coast to the Caspian Sea. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1983 (ISBN 0-8014-1604-3).
- Piggot, Stuart. Wagon, chariot and carriage: Symbol and
status in the history of transport. London: Thames &
Hudson, 1992 (ISBN 0-500-25114-2).
- Pogrebova M. The emergence of chariots and riding in the
South Caucasus in Oxford Journal of Archaeology,
Volume 22, Number 4, November 2003,
pp. 397–409.
- Raulwing, Peter. Horses, Chariots and Indo-Europeans:
Foundations and Methods of Chariotry Research from the Viewpoint of
Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Budapest:
Archaeolingua, 2000 (ISBN 9638046260).
- Sandor, Bela I. The rise and decline of the
Tutankhamun-class chariot in Oxford Journal of
Archaeology, Volume 23, Number 2, May 2004,
pp. 153–175.
- Sandor, Bela I. Tutankhamun's chariots: Secret
treasures of engineering mechanics in Fatigue &
Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures,
Volume 27, Number 7, July 2004,
pp. 637–646.
- Sparreboom M. Chariots in the Veda (Memoirs of the
Kern Institute, Leiden, 3). Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1985
(ISBN 90-04-07590-9).
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