Charles Pierre Baudelaire ( , ) (9 April 1821 - 31
August 1867) was a nineteenth century
French poet,
critic, and
translator. A controversial figure in his
lifetime, Baudelaire's name has become a byword for literary and
artistic
decadence. At the same
time his works, in particular his book of poetry
Les fleurs du mal (
The Flowers of
Evil), have been acknowledged as classics of
French literature.
Biography
Early life
Baudelaire
was born in Paris,
France
in 1821. His father, François Baudelaire, a
senior
civil servant and amateur
artist, was thirty-four years older than
Baudelaire's mother Caroline. François died during Baudelaire's
childhood, in 1827. The following year, Caroline married Lieutenant
Colonel Jacques Aupick, who later became a French ambassador to
various noble courts.
Baudelaire's relationship with his mother was a close and complex
one, and it dominated his life. He later stated ; "I loved my
mother for her elegance. I was a precocious
dandy" - and in a letter to her that, "There was in my
childhood a period of passionate love for you". Aupick, a rigid
disciplinarian, though concerned for Baudelaire's upbringing and
future, soon came to be at odds with his stepson's artistic
temperament.
Baudelaire
was educated in Lyon
, where he
was forced to board away from his mother (even during holidays) and
accept his stepfather's rigid methods, which included depriving him
of visits home when his grades slipped. He wrote when
recalling those times: "A shudder at the grim years of claustration
[...] the unease of wretched and abandoned childhood, the hatred of
tyrannical schoolfellows, and the solitude of the heart."
Baudelaire at fourteen was described by a classmate: "He was much
more refined and distinguished than any of our fellow pupils [...]
we are bound to one another[...] by shared tastes and sympathies,
the precocious love of fine works of literature".
Later, he attended the
Lycée
Louis-le-Grand
in Paris. Baudelaire was erratic in his
studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to
"idleness."
At eighteen, Baudelaire was described as "an exalted character,
sometimes full of mysticism, and sometimes full of immorality and
cynicism (which were excessive but only verbal)." Upon gaining his
degree in 1839, he was undecided
about his future. He told his brother "I don't feel I have a
vocation for anything." His stepfather had in mind a career in law
or diplomacy, but instead Baudelaire decided to embark upon a
literary career, and for the next two years led an irregular life,
socializing with other
bohemian artists
and writers.
Portrait by Emile Deroy
(1820-1846)
Baudelaire began to frequent
prostitutes
and may have contracted
gonorrhea and
syphilis during this period. He went to a
pharmacist known for
venereal
disease treatments, on recommendation of his older brother
Alphonse, a magistrate. For a while, he took on a prostitute named
Sara as his mistress and lived with his brother when his funds were
low. His stepfather kept him on a tight allowance which he spent as
quickly as he received it. Baudelaire began to run up debts, mostly
for clothes. His stepfather demanded an accounting and wrote to
Alphonse: "The moment has come when something must be done to save
your brother from absolute perdition."
In the hope of
reforming him and making a man of him, his stepfather sent him on a
voyage to Calcutta,
India
in 1841, under the care of a former naval
captain. Baudelaire's mother was distressed both by his poor
behavior and by the proposed solution.
The arduous trip, however, did nothing to turn Baudelaire's mind
away from a literary career or from his casual attitude toward
life, so the naval captain agreed to let Baudelaire return home.
Though Baudelaire later exaggerated his aborted trip to create a
legend about his youthful travels and experiences, including
"riding on elephants," the trip did provide strong impressions of
the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, that he later employed in his
poetry. Baudelaire returned to Paris after less than a year's
absence. Much to his parents' chagrin, he was more determined than
ever to continue with his literary career. His mother later
recalled: "Oh, what grief! If Charles had let himself be guided by
his stepfather, his career would have been very different... He
would not have left a name in literature, it is true, but we should
have been happier, all three of us".
Soon, Baudelaire returned to the taverns to philosophize, recite
his unpublished poems and enjoy the adulation of his artistic
peers. At twenty-one, he received a good-sized inheritance of over
100,000 francs, plus four parcels of land, but squandered much of
it within a few years, including borrowing heavily against his
mortgages. He quickly piled up debts far exceeding his annual
income and, out of desperation, his family obtained a decree to
place his property in trust. During this time he met
Jeanne Duval, the illegitimate daughter of a
prostitute from Nantes, who was to become his longest romantic
association. She had been the mistress of the caricaturist and
photographer
Nadar. His mother
thought Duval a "Black Venus" who "tortured him in every way" and
drained him of money at every opportunity.
Career
While still unpublished in 1843, Baudelaire became known in
artistic circles as a
dandy and free-spender,
buying up books, art and antiques he couldn't afford. By 1844, he
was eating on credit and half his inheritance was gone. Baudelaire
regularly implored his mother for money while he tried to advance
his career. He met
Balzac around this time
and began to write many of the poems which would appear in
Les fleurs du mal. His
first published work was his
art review "Salon
of 1845," which attracted immediate attention for its boldness.
Many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, including
his championing of
Delacroix,
but have since been generally accepted. Baudelaire proved himself
to be a well-informed and passionate critic and he gained the
attention of the greater art community. That summer, however,
despondent about his meager income, rising debts, loneliness and
doubtful future, because "the fatigue of falling asleep and the
fatigue of waking are unbearable," he decided to commit suicide and
leave the remainder of his inheritance to his mistress. However, he
lost his resolve and wounded himself with a knife only
superficially. He implored his mother to visit him as he recovered
but she ignored his pleas, perhaps under orders from her husband.
For a time, Baudelaire was homeless and completely estranged from
his parents, until they relented due to his poor condition.
In 1846, Baudelaire wrote his second Salon review, gaining
additional credibility as an advocate and critic of
Romanticism. His support of
Delacroix as the foremost Romantic
artist gained widespread notice. The following year Baudelaire's
novella
La Fanfarlo was published.
Baudelaire took part in the
Revolutions of 1848. For some
years, he was interested in
republican
politics; but his political tendencies were more emotional
positions than steadfast convictions, and spanned
Blanquism, sympathy with the ideas of
Histoire
de la Raison d'Ä–tat of
Giuseppe
Ferrari , as well as with the
ultramontane critique of liberalism of
Joseph de Maistre. His stepfather,
also caught up in the Revolution, survived the mob and was
appointed envoy extraordinary to Turkey by the new government
despite his ties to the deposed royal family.
In the early 1850s, Baudelaire struggled with poor health, pressing
debts, and irregular literary output. He often moved from one
lodging to another and maintained an uneasy relationship with his
mother, frequently imploring her by letter for money. (Her letters
to him have not been found.) He received many projects that he was
unable to complete, though he did finish translations of stories by
Edgar Allan Poe which were published
in
Le Pays. Baudelaire had learned English in his
childhood, and
Gothic novels, such as
Lewis's
The Monk, and Poe's short stories, became some
of his favorite reading matter, and major influences.
Upon the death of his stepfather in 1857, Baudelaire received no
mention in the will but he was heartened nonetheless that the
division with his mother might now be mended. Still strongly tied
to her emotionally, at thirty-six he wrote her: "believe that I
belong to you absolutely, and that I belong only to you".
The Flowers of Evil
Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, often sidetracked by
indolence, emotional distress and illness,
and it was not until 1857 that he published his first and most
famous volume of poems,
Les Fleurs
du mal (
The Flowers of Evil), originally titled
Les Limbes.
Some of these poems had already appeared in
the Revue des deux
mondes (Review of Two Worlds), when they were
published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had
inherited a printing business at Alençon
.
The poems found a small, appreciative audience, but greater public
attention was given to their subject matter. The effect on fellow
artists was, as
Théodore de
Banville stated, "immense, prodigious, unexpected, mingled with
admiration and with some indefinable anxious fear". Flaubert,
recently attacked in a similar fashion for
Madame Bovary (and acquitted), was
impressed and wrote to Baudelaire: "You have found a way to
rejuvenate Romanticism... You are as unyielding as marble, and as
penetrating as an English mist".
The principal themes of
sex and
death were considered scandalous. He also touched on
lesbianism, sacred and profane love,
metamorphosis, melancholy, the corruption of the city, lost
innocence, the oppressiveness of living and wine. Notable in some
poems is Baudelaire's use of imagery of the sense of smell and of
fragrances, which is used to evoke feelings of
nostalgia and past intimacy.
The book, however, quickly became a byword for unwholesomeness
among mainstream
critics of the day. Some
critics called a few of the poems "masterpieces of passion, art and
poetry" but other poems were deemed to merit no less than legal
action to suppress them. J. Habas writing in
Le Figaro, led the charge against Baudelaire,
writing: "Everything in it which is not hideous is
incomprehensible, everything one understands is putrid". Then
Baudelaire responded to the outcry, in a prophetic letter to his
mother:
"You know that I have always considered that literature
and the arts pursue an aim independent of morality. Beauty of
conception and style is enough for me. But this book, whose title
(Fleurs du mal) says everything, is clad, as you will see,
in a cold and sinister beauty. It was created with rage and
patience. Besides, the proof of its positive worth is in all the
ill that they speak of it. The book enrages people. Moreover, since
I was terrified myself of the horror that I should inspire, I cut
out a third from the proofs. They deny me everything, the spirit of
invention and even the knowledge of the French language. I don't
care a rap about all these imbeciles, and I know that this book,
with its virtues and its faults, will make its way in the memory of
the lettered public, beside the best poems of V. Hugo, Th. Gautier
and even Byron."
Baudelaire, his
publisher and the
printer were successfully prosecuted for
creating an offense against public
morals.
They were fined but Baudelaire was not imprisoned.
Six of the poems were
suppressed, but printed later as Les Épaves (The
Wrecks) (Brussels
,
1866). Another edition of
Les Fleurs du mal,
without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in
1861. Many notables rallied behind Baudelaire and condemned the
sentence.
Victor Hugo wrote to him:
"Your
fleurs du mal shine and dazzle like stars... I
applaud your vigorous spirit with all my might". Baudelaire did not
appeal the judgment but his fine was reduced. Nearly 100 years
later, on 11 May 1949, Baudelaire was vindicated, the judgment
officially reversed, and the six banned poems reinstated in
France.
In the poem "Au lecteur" ("To the Reader") that prefaces
Les
Fleurs du mal, Baudelaire accuses his readers of
hypocrisy and of being as guilty of
sins and lies as the poet:
- ...If rape or arson,
poison or the knife
- Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff
- Of this drab canvas we accept as life
-
- It is because we are not bold enough!
- :(Roy Campbell's
translation)
Final years
Baudelaire next worked on a translation and adaptation of
Thomas de Quincey's
Confessions of an English
Opium Eater. Other works in the years that followed
included
Petits Poèmes en
prose (
Small Prose
poems); a series of art reviews published in the
Pays,
Exposition universelle (
Country, World Fair); studies
on
Gustave Flaubert (in
L'Artiste, 18 October 1857); on
Théophile Gautier (
Revue
contemporaine, September, 1858); various articles contributed
to Eugene Crepet's
Poètes francais;
Les Paradis
artificiels: opium et haschisch (
French poets; Artificial
Paradises: opium and hashish) (1860); and
Un Dernier
Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac (
A Final
Chapter of the history of works of Balzac) (1880), originally
an article "Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie" ("How
one pays one's debts when one has genius"), in which his criticism
turns against his friends
Honoré
de Balzac,
Théophile
Gautier, and
Gérard de
Nerval.
By 1859, his illnesses, his long-term use of
laudanum, his life of stress and poverty had taken
a toll and Baudelaire had aged noticeably.
But at last, his
mother relented and agreed to let him live with her for a while at
Honfleur
.
Baudelaire was productive and at peace in the seaside town, his
poem
Le Voyage being one example of his efforts during
that time. In 1860, he became an ardent supporter of
Richard Wagner.
His financial difficulties increased again, however, particularly
after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in 1861. In 1864,
he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the hope of selling the
rights to his works and also to give
lectures. His long-standing relationship with
Jeanne Duval continued on-and-off, and he
helped her to the end of his life. Baudelaire's relationships with
actress Marie Daubrun and with courtesan
Apollonie Sabatier, though the source of
much inspiration, never produced any lasting satisfaction. He
smoked
opium, and in Brussels he began to
drink to excess. Baudelaire suffered a
massive
stroke in 1866 and
paralysis followed. The last two years of his life
were spent, in a semi-paralyzed state, in "maisons de santé" in
Brussels and in Paris, where he died on 31 August 1867.
Baudelaire
is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse
, Paris.
Many of Baudelaire's works were published posthumously. After his
death, his mother paid off his substantial debts, and at last she
found some comfort in Baudelaire's emerging fame. "I see that my
son, for all his faults, has his place in literature". She lived
another four years.
Critiques
Baudelaire was an active participant in the artistic life of his
times. As critic and essayist, he wrote extensively and
perceptively about the luminaries and themes of French culture. He
was frank with friends and enemies, rarely took the diplomatic
approach and sometimes responded violently verbally, which often
undermined his cause. His associations were numerous and included:
Gustave Courbet,
Honoré Daumier,
Franz Liszt,
Champfleury,
Victor
Hugo,
Gustave Flaubert,
Balzac and the artists and writers that
follow.
Edgar Allan Poe
In 1846 and 1847, Baudelaire became acquainted with the works of
Poe, in which he found tales and
poems that had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain but never
taken shape. Baudelaire had much in common with Poe (who died in
1849 at age forty). Both had a similar sensibility and
macabre and supernatural turn of mind; both
struggled with illness, poverty, and melancholy. Baudelaire saw in
Poe a precursor and tried to be his French contemporary
counterpart. From this time until 1865, he was largely occupied
with translating Poe's works; his translations were widely praised.
Baudelaire was not the first French translator of Poe, but his
"scrupulous translations" were considered among the best. These
were published as
Histoires extraordinaires
(
Extraordinary stories) (1852),
Nouvelles histoires
extraordinaires (
New extraordinary stories) (1857),
Aventures
d'Arthur Gordon Pym,
Eureka, and
Histoires
grotesques et sérieuses (
Grotesque and serious
stories) (1865). Two
essays on Poe are to
be found in his
Oeuvres complètes (
Complete
works) (vols. v. and vi.).
Eugène Delacroix
A strong supporter of the Romantic painter
Delacroix, Baudelaire called him "a
poet in painting". Baudelaire also absorbed much of Delacroix's
aesthetic ideas as expressed in his journals. As Baudelaire
elaborated in his "Salon of 1846", "As one contemplates his series
of pictures, one seems to be attending the celebration of some
grievous mystery... This grave and lofty melancholy shines with a
dull light... plaintive and profound like a melody by Weber".
Delacroix, though appreciative, kept his distance from Baudelaire,
particularly after the scandal of
Les Fleurs du mal. In
private correspondence, Delacroix stated that Baudelaire "really
gets on my nerves" and he expressed his unhappiness with
Baudelaire's persistent comments about "melancholy" and
"feverishness".
Richard Wagner
Baudelaire had no formal musical training, and knew little of
composers beyond
Beethoven and
Carl Maria von Weber. Weber was in some
ways
Wagner's precursor, using the
leitmotif and conceiving the idea of the
"total art work" ("Gesamtkunstwerk"), both of which found
Baudelaire's admiration. Before even hearing Wagner's music,
Baudelaire studied reviews and essays about him, and formulated his
impressions. Later, Baudelaire put them into his non-technical
analysis of Wagner, which was highly regarded, particularly his
essay "Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris". Baudelaire's reaction
to music was passionate and psychological. "Music engulfs
(possesses) me like the sea". After attending three Wagner concerts
in Paris in 1860, Baudelaire wrote to the composer: "I had a
feeling of pride and joy in understanding, in being possessed, in
being overwhelmed, a truly sensual pleasure like that of rising in
the air". Baudelaire's writings contributed to the elevation of
Wagner and to the cult of
Wagnerism that
swept Europe in the following decades.
Théophile Gautier
Gautier, writer and poet,
earned Baudelaire's respect for his perfection of form and his
mastery of language, though Baudelaire thought he lacked deeper
emotion and spirituality. Both strove to express the artist's inner
vision, which
Heinrich Heine had
earlier stated: "In artistic matters, I am a supernaturalist. I
believe that the artist can not find all his forms in nature, but
that the most remarkable are revealed to him in his soul".
Gautier's frequent meditations on death and the horror of life are
themes which influenced Baudelaire writings. In gratitude for their
friendship and commonality of vision, Baudelaire dedicated
Les
Fleurs du mal to Gautier.
Édouard Manet
Manet and Baudelaire became constant
companions from around 1855. In the early 1860s, Baudelaire
accompanied Manet on daily sketching trips and often met him
socially. He also lent Baudelaire money and looked after his
affairs, particularly when Baudelaire went to Belgium. Baudelaire
encouraged Manet to strike his own path and not succumb to
criticism. "Manet has great talent, a talent which will stand the
test of time. But he has a weak character. He seems to me crushed
and stunned by shock". In his painting
Music in the Tuileries, Manet
includes portraits of his friends
Théophile Gautier,
Jacques Offenbach, and Baudelaire. While
it's difficult to differentiate who influenced whom, both Manet and
Baudelaire discussed and expressed some common themes through their
respective arts. Baudelaire praised the modernity of Manet's
subject matter: "almost all our originality comes from the stamp
that 'time' imprints upon our feelings". When Manet's famous
Olympia (1865), a
portrait of a nude prostitute, provoked a scandal for its blatant
realism mixed with an imitation of
Renaissance motifs, Baudelaire
worked privately to support his friend, though he offered no public
defense (he was, however, ill at the time). When Baudelaire
returned from Belgium after his stroke, Manet and his wife were
frequent visitors at the nursing home and she would play passages
from Wagner for Baudelaire on the piano.
Nadar
Nadar (Félix Tournachon) was a
noted caricaturist, scientist and important early photographer.
Baudelaire admired Nadar, one of his closest friends, and wrote:
"Nadar is the most amazing manifestation of vitality". They moved
in similar circles and Baudelaire made many social connections
through him. Nadar's ex-mistress
Jeanne
Duval became Baudelaire's mistress around 1842. Baudelaire
became interested in
photography in the
1850s and denounced it as an art form and advocated for its return
to "its real purpose, which is that of being the servant to the
sciences and arts". Photography should not, according to
Baudelaire, encroach upon "the domain of the impalpable and the
imaginary". Nadar remained a stalwart friend right to Baudelaire's
last days and wrote his obituary notice in
Le Figaro.
Philosophy
Many of Baudelaire's philosophical proclamations were considered
scandalous and intentionally provocative in his time. He wrote on a
wide range of subjects, drawing criticism and outrage from many
quarters.
Love
"There is an invincible taste for prostitution in the heart of man,
from which comes his horror of solitude. He wants to be 'two'. The
man of genius wants to be 'one'... It is this horror of solitude,
the need to lose oneself in the external flesh, that man nobly
calls 'the need to love'."
Marriage
"Unable to suppress love, the Church wanted at least to disinfect
it, and it created marriage."
The artist
"The more a man cultivates the arts, the less randy he becomes...
Only the brute is good at coupling, and copulation is the lyricism
of the masses. To copulate is to enter into another -- and the
artist never emerges from himself."
"Style is character"
Pleasure
"Personally, I think that the unique and supreme delight lies in
the certainty of doing 'evil' -- and men and women know from birth
that all pleasure lies in evil."
Politics
"I have no convictions, as they are understood by the men of my
century, because I have no ambition... However, I have some
convictions, in a nobler sense, which cannot be understood by the
men of my time".
Influence
Baudelaire's influence on the direction of modern French (and
English) language literature was considerable. The most significant
French writers to come after him were generous with tributes; four
years after his death,
Arthur Rimbaud
praised him in a letter as 'the king of poets, a true God'. In
1895,
Stéphane Mallarmé
published a sonnet in Baudelaire's memory, 'Le Tombeau de Charles
Baudelaire'.
Marcel Proust, in an
essay published in 1922, stated that along with
Alfred de Vigny, Baudelaire was 'the
greatest poet of the nineteenth century'.
In the English-speaking world,
Edmund
Wilson credited Baudelaire as providing an initial impetus for
the
Symbolist movement, by virtue
of his translations of Poe. In 1930,
T.
S. Eliot,
while asserting that Baudelaire had not yet received a "just
appreciation" even in France, claimed that the poet had "great
genius" and asserted that his "technical mastery which can hardly
be overpraised... has made his verse an inexhaustible study for
later poets, not only in his own language".
At the same time that Eliot was affirming Baudelaire's importance
from a broadly
conservative and
explicitly
Christian viewpoint,
left-wing critics such as Wilson
and
Walter Benjamin were able to do
so from a dramatically different perspective. Benjamin translated
Baudelaire's
Tableaux
Parisiens into German and published a major essay on
translation as the foreword.
In the late 1930s, Benjamin used Baudelaire as a starting point and
focus for his monumental attempt at a
materialist assessment of 19th
century culture,
Das
Passagenwerk. For Benjamin, Baudelaire's importance lay in
his anatomies of the
crowd, of the city and of
modernity.
Baudelaire was also an influence on
H. P.
Lovecraft, serving as a model for
Lovecraft's decadent and evil characters in both "The Hound" and
"Hypnos".
In 1982, avant-garde performance artist and vocalist
Diamanda Galás recorded an adaptation of
his poem
The Litanies of
Satan (
Les Litanies de Satan).
Currently,
Vanderbilt
University
has "assembled one of the world’s most
comprehensive research collections on...Baudelaire."[568]
In Popular Culture
- In the popular Warner Bros
television series Angel,
it was indicated that Le Vampire was truly inspired by
Baudelaire being stalked and toyed with by the notorious vampire
Angelus.
- In Edward Albee's The Zoo Story Peter tells Jerry that
compared to J.P. Marquand, Baudelaire is "by far the finer of the
two."
- Baudelaire's famous portrait also appears in the background of
the closing sequence to the French film La
Haine (1995) as a mural when Vinz (played by actor
Vincent Cassell) is confronted by
police officer Notre-Dame who then accidentally shoots him.
- Baudelaire's poem "Paysage" was transposed into a song by
Quebec group Les Colocs.
- Baudelaire's poem "The Eyes of the Poor" (1869) has many
similar lines and images with, and is widely regarded as the
inspiration for, the song "How Beautiful You Are" (1987) by
The Cure.
- Dustin Hoffman recited Baudelaire's poem "Be Drunken" at the
22nd AFI (American Film Institute) Life Achievement Award
ceremonies to the honoree, Jack Nicholson.
- Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate
Events stars as the main characters the Baudelaire
siblings, so named after Charles Baudelaire.
- A short excerpt from Baudelaire's poem "Le Voyage" appears
before "Chapter Fourteen," epilogue to Lemony Snicket's work.
- Author/Harry Potter fanfiction writer Cassandra Claire's one-shots "A Season in
Hell" and "After The Flood" were named after and contains
references to Baudelaire's works.
- AFI has the song Midnight Sun as a
hidden track at the end of their album Black Sails in the Sunset. The
lyrics are partly inspired in Baudelaire's poem De Profundis
Clamavi, a transalation of which is whispered in the song.
See also
Bibliography
Tomb of Baudelaire
- Salon de 1845, 1845
- Salon de 1846, 1846
- La Fanfarlo, 1847
- Les Fleurs du mal,
1857
- Les paradis
artificiels, 1860
- Réflexions
sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains, 1861
- Le Peintre de la
Vie Moderne, 1863
- Curiosités
Esthétiques, 1868
- L'art romantique,
1868
- Le Spleen de Paris/Petits
Poèmes en Prose, 1869
- Oeuvres
Posthumes et Correspondance Générale, 1887–1907
- Fusées, 1897
- Mon Coeur Mis Ã
Nu, 1897
- Oeuvres
Complètes, 1922-53 (19 vols.)
- Mirror of Art, 1955
- The Essence of
Laughter, 1956
- Curiosités
Esthétiques, 1962
- The
Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays, 1964
- Baudelaire as a
Literary Critic, 1964
- Arts in Paris
1845-1862, 1965
- Selected
Writings on Art and Artist, 1972
- Selected
Letters of Charles Baudelaire, 1986
- Twenty Prose Poems,
1988
- Critique
d'art; Critique musicale, 1992
Online texts
References
- Joanna Richardson, Baudelaire, St. Martin's Press, New
York, 1994, pp. 13-14, ISBN 0-312-11476-1.
- Richardson 1994, p.16
- Richardson 1994, p.23
- Richardson 1994, p.30, 32
- Richardson 1994, p.35
- Richardson 1994, p.42
- Richardson 1994, p.46
- Richardson 1994, p.52
- Richardson 1994, pp. 55-57
- Richardson 1994, p.60
- Richardson 1994, pp. 67-68
- Richardson 1994, p.70
- Richardson 1994, p.71
- Richardson 1994, p.75
- Richardson 1994, p.83
- Richardson 1994, p.95
- Richardson 1994, pp. 101-102
- Richardson 1994, p.110.
- Richardson 1994, p.127.
- Richardson 1994, p.125.
- Richardson 1994, p.160.
- Richardson 1994, p.181.
- Richardson 1994, p.219.
- Richardson 1994, p.191.
- Richardson 1994, p.236.
- Richardson 1994, p.241.
- Richardson 1994, p.231.
- Richardson 1994, pp. 232-237
- Richardson 1994, p.238.
- Richardson 1994, p.248
- Richardson 1994, p.250.
- Richardson 1994, p.311.
- Richardson 1994, p.281.
- Richardson 1994, p. 400
- Richardson 1994, p.497.
- Richardson 1994, p.268.
- Richardson 1994, p.140.
- Lois Boe Hyslop, Baudelaire, Man Of His Time, Yale
University Press, 1980, p.14, ISBN 0-300-02513-0.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 68.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 69
- Hyslop (1980), p. 131.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 55.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 53.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 51.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 65.
- Hyslop (1980), p. 63.
- Richardson 1994, p.50
- Rimbaud, Arthur: Oeuvres complètes, p. 253,
NRF/Gallimard, 1972.
- 'Concerning Baudelaire' in Proust, Marcel: Against
Sainte-Beuve and Other Essays, p. 286, trans. John Sturrock,
Penguin, 1994.
- Wilson, Edmund: Axel's Castle, p. 20, Fontana, 1962
(originally published 1931).
- 'Baudelaire', in Eliot, T. S.: Selected Essays, pp.
422 and 425, Faber & Faber, 1961.
- cf. Eliot, 'Religion in Literature', in Eliot, op. cit.,
p.388.
- 'The Task of the Translator', in Benjamin, Walter: Selected
Writings Vol. 1: 1913-1926, pp. 253-263, Belknap/Harvard,
1996.
- Benjamin, Walter: The Arcades Project, trans. Howard
Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin, Belknap/Harvard, 1999.
- 'The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire' in Benjamin,
Walter: Selected Writings Vol. 4 1938-1940, pp. 3-92,
Belknap/Harvard, 2003.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_(Angel_episode)
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http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:gpftxq9hldde
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http://blogs.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.view&friendId=55109325&blogId=98174441
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