Colombo (Sinhala: කොළඹ, ; ) is the largest city and
commercial capital of Sri
Lanka
. It is located on the west coast of the island
and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
, the capital city of Sri Lanka. Colombo is a
busy and vibrant city with a mixture of modern life and colonial
buildings and ruins and a city population of 647,100.
The Colombo
Metropolitan Region, defined by the districts of Colombo
, Gampaha
and Kalutara
, has an
estimated population of 5,648,000, and covers an area of
3,694.20 km².
The name "Colombo", first introduced by the Portuguese in 1505, is
believed to be derived from the classical
Sinhalese name
Kolon thota,
meaning "port on the river
Kelani". It
has also been suggested that the name may be derived from the
Sinhalese name
Kola-amba-thota which means "Harbour with
leafy mango trees".
Due to its
large harbour
and its
strategic position along the East-West sea
trade routes, Colombo was known to
ancient traders 2,000 years ago. However it was only made
the capital of the island when Sri Lanka was ceded to the
British Empire in 1815, and its status as
capital was retained when the nation became
independent in 1948.
In 1978,
when administrative functions were moved to Sri
Jayawardenepura Kotte, Colombo was designated as the commercial capital
of Sri Lanka.
Like many cities, Colombo's urban area extends well beyond the
boundaries of a single local authority, encompassing other
Municipal and Urban Councils. The
main city is home to a majority of the Sri Lanka's corporate
offices, restaurants and entertainment venues.
Famous landmarks in
Colombo include the Galle Face
Green, the Viharamahadevi Park
as well as the National Museum.
History
As Colombo
possesses a natural harbour, it was known to Roman, Arabs, and Chinese
traders over
2,000 years ago. Traveller
Ibn
Batuta who visited the island in the 14th century, referred to
it as
Kalanpu.
Arab Muslims whose prime interests were trade, began to
settle in Colombo around the 8th century AD mostly because the port
helped their business and controlled much of the trade between the
Sinhalese kingdoms and the outside
world. Their descendants now comprise the local
Sri Lankan Moor community.
The Portuguese Era
Colombo's colonial heritage is visible
throughout the city, as in the historical
Wolvendaal
church, established by the Dutch in 1749
Portuguese
explorers led by Dom Lourenço de Almeida first arrived
in Sri Lanka in 1505. During their initial visit they made a
treaty with the King of Kotte Parakramabahu VIII (1484-1508)
enabling them to trade in the islands' crop of cinnamon, which lay
along the coastal areas of the island, including in Colombo. As
part of the treaty, the Portuguese were given full authority over
the coast line in exchange for the promise of guarding the coast
against invaders. They were also allowed to establish a
trading post in Colombo. Within a short time,
however, they then expelled the
Muslim inhabitants of Colombo and began to
build a
fort there in 1517.
The Portuguese soon realized that control of Sri Lanka was
necessary for protection of their coastal establishments in India
and they began to manipulate the rulers of the Kotte Kingdom in
order to gain control of the area. After skilfully exploiting
rivalries within the Royal Family, they took control of a large
area of the Kingdom and the Sinhalese King Mayadunne established a
new Kingdom at Sitawaka, a domain in the Kotte kingdom.
Before
long he annexed much of the Kotte kingdom and forced the Portuguese
to retreat to Colombo, which was repeatedly besieged by Mayadunne
and the later Kings of Sitawaka, forcing them to seek reinforcement
from their major base in Goa
,
India. However, following the fall of the Kingdom in 1593,
the Portuguese were able to establish complete control over the
entire coastal area, with Colombo as their capital.
This part
of Colombo is still known as Fort
and
houses the presidential palace and the majority of Colombo's
five star hotels.
The area
immediately outside Fort is known as Pettah
(Sinhala piṭa koṭuva, "outer fort") and is
a commercial hub.
The Dutch Era
In 1638
the Dutch
signed a
treaty with King Rajasinha II of Kandy which assured the
king assistance in his war against the Portuguese in exchange for a
monopoly of the island's major trade goods. The Portuguese
resisted the Dutch and the Kandyans, but were gradually defeated in
their strongholds beginning in 1639. The Dutch captured Colombo in
1656 after an epic siege, at the end of which a mere 93 Portuguese
survivors were given
safe conduct out
of the fort. Although the Dutch initially restored the captured
area back to the Sinhalese Kings, they later refused to turn them
over and gained control over the island's richest cinnamon lands
including Colombo which then served as the capital of the Dutch
maritime provinces under the control of the
Dutch East India Company until
1796.
Dutch engraving of Colombo in about
1680
The British era
Although
the British
captured Colombo in 1796, it remained a British military outpost until the
Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to them in 1815 and they made Colombo the
capital of their newly created crown colony of Ceylon
.
Unlike the Portuguese and Dutch before them, whose primary use of
Colombo was as a military fort, the British began constructing
houses and other civilian structures around the fort, giving rise
to the current City of Colombo.
Initially, they placed the administration of the city under a
"Collector", and John Macdowell of the
Madras Service was the first to hold the
office. Then, in 1833, the
Government
Agent of the Western Province was charged with the
administration of the city. Centuries of
colonial rule had meant a decline of indigenous
administration of Colombo, and in 1865 the British conceived a
Municipal Council as a means of training the local population in
self-governance. The
Legislative Council of Ceylon
constituted the Colombo Municipal Council in 1865 and the Council
met for the first time on the January 16, 1866. At the time, the
population of the region was around 80,000.
Colombo in the 1930s
During the time they were in control of the Colombo, the British
were responsible for much of the planning of the present city. In
some parts of the city
tram car tracks and
granite flooring laid during the era are still visible today.
Post Independence
This era of colonialism ended peacefully in 1948 when Ceylon gained
independence from Britain. Due to the tremendous impact this caused
on the city's inhabitants and on the country as a whole, the
changes that resulted at the end of the colonial period were
drastic. An entire new culture took root. Changes in laws and
customs, clothing styles, religions and
proper names were a significant result of the
colonial era. These cultural changes were followed by the
strengthening of the island's economy. Even today, the influence of
the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British is clearly visible in
Colombo’s architecture, names, clothing, food, language and
attitudes. Buildings from all three eras stand in their glory as
reminders of the turbulent past of Colombo. The city and its people
show an interesting mix of European clothing and lifestyles
together with local customs.
Historically, Colombo referred to the area
around the Fort and Pettah Market
which is famous for the variety of products
available as well as the Khan Clock
Tower, a local landmark. At present, it refers to the
city limits of the
Colombo
Municipal Council.
More often, the name is used for the
Conurbation known as Greater
Colombo
, which encompasses several Municipal councils including Kotte
, Dehiwela
and Colombo.
Although Colombo lost its status as the capital of Sri Lanka in the
1980s, it continues to be the island's commercial centre. Despite
the official capital of Sri Lanka moving to the adjacent Sri
Jayawardanapura Kotte, most countries still maintain their
diplomatic missions in Colombo.
Geography and climate
Colombo's geography is a mix of land and water.
The city has many
canals and, in the heart of the city, the Beira Lake
. The lake is one of the most distinctive
landmarks of Colombo, and was used for centuries by colonists to
defend the city. It remains a popular attraction, hosting
regattas, and
theatrical
events on its shores. The Northern and North-Eastern border of
the city of Colombo is formed by the
Kelani
River, which meets the sea in a part of the city known as the
Modera (
mōdara in Sinhala) which means
river delta.
Colombo’s climate is fairly temperate all throughout the year. From
March to April the temperature averages around 31 degrees Celsius
(88
degrees Fahrenheit) maximum. The only
major change in the Colombo weather occurs during the
monsoon seasons from May to August and October to
January. This is the time of year where heavy rains can be
expected. Colombo sees little relative diurnal range of
temperature, although this is more marked in the drier winter
months, where minimum temperatures average 22 degrees Celsius (72
degrees Fahrenheit). Rainfall in the city averages around a
year.
Demographics
Colombo is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural city. The population of
Colombo is a mix of numerous ethnic groups, mainly
Sinhalese,
Moors and
Tamils.
There are also small communities of people
with Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, Malay and Indian
origins
living in the city, as well as numerous European expatriates. Colombo is the most populous
city in Sri Lanka, with 642,163 people living within the city
limits. According to the census of 2001 the demographics of urban
Colombo by ethnicity is as
follows.....................................................
Government and politics
The Beira Lake: the Seema Malakaya
temple and the gallery island can be seen in the lake
Local Government
Colombo is a
charter city, with a
Mayor Council form of
government. Colombo's mayor and the council members are elected
through local government elections held once in five years. For the
past 50 years the city had been ruled by the
United National Party (UNP), a
right leaning party, whose
business friendly policies resonate with the population of Colombo.
However the UNP nomination list for the 2006 Municipal elections
was rejected, and an Independent Group supported by the UNP won the
elections.
Uvais Mohamed
Imitiyas was subsequently appointed Mayor of Colombo.
The city government provides sewer, road management and waste
management services, in case of water, electricity and telephone
utility services the council liaises with the water supply and
drainage board, the Ceylon electricity board and telephone service
providers.
- Official Vision and mission
Vision:
Mission
National capital
Colombo was the capital of the coastal areas controlled by the
Portuguese, Dutch and the British from the 1700s to the 1815 when
the British gained control of the entire island following the
Kandian convention. From then until the 1980s the national capital
of the island was Colombo.
During the 1980s plans were made to move the
administrative capital to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte and thus move all governmental institutions out of
Colombo to make way for commercial activities. As a primary
step the
Parliament was
moved to a new complex in Kotte and several ministries and
departments were also moved. However the move was never completed.
Today many governmental institutions still remain in Colombo.
These
include the President's House
, Presidential
Secretariat, Prime Minister's House
(Temple Trees), Prime Minister's Office,
the Supreme Court of Sri
Lanka, Central Bank of Sri
Lanka, important government ministries and departments; such as
Finance (Treasury), Defence, Public
Administration & Home affairs, Foreign affairs,
Justice and the Military
headquarters, Naval headquarters (SLNS Parakrama), Air Force headquarters
(SLAF Colombo) and Police national and field force
headquarters.
Suburbs
Colombo is divided into 15 numbered ares for the purposes of postal
services. Within these areas are the suburbs with their
corresponding post office.
Economy
Colombo is the hub of Sri Lanka's
economic activity, with many major events taking place around the
Galle Face Green
The great majority of Sri Lankan corporations have their head
offices in Colombo. Some of the industries include chemicals,
textiles, glass, cement, leather goods, furniture, and jewellery.
In the
city centre is located South Asia's second tallest
building - The World Trade Centre
. The 40 story
Twin
Tower complex is the centre of important commercial
establishments, situated in the Fort district, the city's nerve
center. Right outside the
Fort area is
Pettah
which is derived from the Sinhalese word
pita which means
out or
outside as it is outside the
Fort.
Pettah is more crowded than the fort area. It's a place you can buy
almost anything you want, Pettah's roads are always packed and
pavements are full of small stalls selling
from delicious
Sherbat to
Shirts. Main Street consists mostly of clothes shops
and the cross roads, which are literally known as Cross Streets
where each of the five streets specializes in a specific business.
For example the First Cross Street is mostly
electronic goods shops, the Second,
cellular phones and fancy goods. Most of
these businesses in Pettah are dominated by Muslim traders. At the
end of the main street further away from Fort is the Sea Street,
Sri Lanka's Gold market - dominated by Tamil interests. This
mile-long street is full of jewellery shops.
The Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR) encompasses the country's
administrative capital Kotte and Colombo. Found within the borders
of the CMR is 80% of the country’s industries and over 60% of all
vehicles plying Sri Lankan roads.
Law enforcement & Crime
The
Sri Lanka Police the main law
enforcement agency of the island liaise with the municipal council,
but is under the control of the
Ministry of Defence of the
central government. Policing in Colombo and its suburbs falls
within the
Metropolitan Range headed by the Deputy
Inspector General of Police (Metropolitan), this also includes the
Colombo Crime Division. As with most Sri Lankan cities, the
magistrate court handles felony crimes, the district court handles
civil cases.
As in other large cities around the world, Colombo experiences
certain levels of
street crime and
bribery. In addition, in since the 1980s
there have been a number of major terrorist attacks. The
LTTE has been linked to bombings and assassinations in
the city.
Welikada Prison
is situated in Colombo and it is one of the largest
maximum-security prisons in the country.
Infrastructure
Colombo has most of the amenities that a modern city has. The
majority of the major shopping malls in Sri Lanka are located in
the city, of which all are
wi-fi enabled. In
recent times there's been an outpour of
high
rise condominiums in the city, mainly due to the very high land
prices.
Port of Colombo
The
largest and one of the busiest ports in Sri
Lanka is in Colombo.
Colombo was established primarily as a port city during the
colonial era, with an artificial harbour that has been expanded
over the years. The
Sri Lanka Navy
maintains a
naval base,
SLNS
Rangalla within the harbour.
The Port of Colombo handled 3.75 million
twenty-foot equivalent units in
2008, 10.6% up on 2007 (which itself was 9.7% up on 2006), bucking
the global economic trend. Of those, 817,000 were local shipments
with the rest transshipments. The port is close to its capacity for
container handling. An expansion project, the South Harbour
project, will increase the port's capacity.
Transport
Main Street in the Fort with the Ghaffoor Building in the
background
Colombo Train Station
Colombo has an extensive public transport system based on
buses. The bus service is operated both by private and
government own Sri Lanka Transport Board (SLTB). Train transport
within the city is limited since most trains are meant for
transport to and from the city rather than within the city and are
often overcrowded. However the
Central Bus Stand and
Fort Railway Station functions as the islands primary hub
for bus and rail transport respectively. Up until the 1970s the
city had a
trams service, which was
discontinued. Other means of transport includes
auto rickshaws (commonly called "three
wheelers" in Sri Lanka) and
taxicabs. Three
wheelers are entirely operated by individuals and hardly regulated
whilst cab services are run by private companies and are
metered.
Construction of the Colombo Metro Rail, a
Mass Rapid Transit railway system, similar to that of other
advanced Asian cities has begun. The project was established to
control the excessive traffic in the city. The project is carried
out by NEB Rapid Infrastructure Projects Pvt.Ltd., an Indian and
Singaporean collaboration.
Bandaranaike
International Airport
serves the city for all International flights while
the Ratmalana
Airport
serves all local flights.
- Roads
- Rail:
Landmarks
The Jami Ul Alfar mosque, Pettah is
one of the most visited landmarks in Colombo
The two World Trade Centre towers use to be the most recognized
landmarks of the city. Before these towers were completed in 1997,
the adjacent
Bank of Ceylon tower was
the tallest structure and the most prominent landmark of the city.
Before the skyscrapers were built it was the Old Parliament
Building that stood majestically in the Fort district with the
Old Colombo Lighthouse
situated close to it. Another important landmark of the city is the
Independence
Hall at Independence Square in Cinnamon gardens.
Even before the parliament was built some claim that the
Jami Ul-Alfar Mosque was recognized as
the landmark of Colombo by
sailors
approaching the
port. The
mosque is still one of the most visited tourist sites
in Colombo.
Another landmark is St.Paul's Church
Milagiriya, one of the oldest
churches in Sri Lanka, first built by the Portugese
and re-built by the British in
1848.
The Fort district also has the famous
Cargills &
Millers complex that is protected by a special government law
from demolition. This is done mainly to preserve the historic
beauty of the Fort area.
The Galle Face Green is the city's largest and most elegant
promenade. Lined with
palm trees and adjacent to the coast, this
mile-long stretch in the heart of the city is a constant beehive of
activity. The green is especially busy on Fridays and Saturdays. In
the evenings it plays host to families and children playing sports
and
flying kite, lovers embracing under
umbrellas and health enthusiasts taking their daily evening walks.
There are numerous small food stalls and a small stretch of beach
to get wet. The green was recently given a make over and since then
has been even more popular with the local community. The Green also
frequently hosts numerous international and local concerts and
performances, such as the recently concluded World Drum
Festival.
Cannons that were once mounted on the rampart
of the old fort of Colombo laid out for observance and prestige at
the Green, giving a colonial touch to the city. The famous colonial
styled
Galle Face Hotel, known as
Asia's Emerald on the Green since 1864, is also adjacent to Galle
Face Green. The Hotel has played host to distinguished guests
including the
British Royal
Family and other
Royal Guests and
Celebrities.
Apparently after having stayed at the hotel,
Princess
Alexandra of Denmark
had commented that "the peacefulness and generosity
encountered at the Galle Face Hotel cannot be matched".
Around the corner from Galle Face are prominent
coffee bars, chic bars and boutiques.
Education
Education institutions in Colombo has a long history. Colombo has
many of the prominent
public
schools in the country some of them government owned and others
are private.
Most of the prominent schools in the city
date back to the 1800s when they were established during the
British colonial rule, such as the Royal College Colombo
(1835). Certain urban schools of Sri Lanka have some
religious alignment, this is partly due to the influence of British
who established Christian missionary schools, these include the
Anglican, Bishop's College(1875); the Buddhist, Ananda College
(1886); the Muslim, Zahira College (1892); the Catholic, St. Joseph's College
(1896). This religious alignment does not effect the
curriculum of the school except for the demography of the student
population.
Higher education in the city has a long history, it begins with the
establishment of the
Colombo
Medical College (1870), the
Colombo Law College (1875), School of
Agriculture (1884) and the Government Technical College (1893). The
first step in the creation of a University in the island was taken
in 1913 with the established of the
University College Colombo in
1921 which prepare students for the
external examinations
of the
University of London,
this was followed by the formation of the
University of Ceylon, which had a
campus in Colombo. Today the
University of Colombo and the
University of the
Visual & Performing Arts are state universities in the
city.
The
Sri Lanka Institute of Information
Technology
also has a metropolitan campus in the centre of the
city. There are several private higher education
institutions within the city.
Architecture
Colombo has wildly varying architecture that span centuries and
depict various styles. Many
colonial buildings influenced by the
Portuguese,
Dutch and
British exist alongside
structures built in
Buddhist,
Hindu ,
Islamic,
Indian and
Contemporary architectural styles.
No other place is this more evident in the heart of the city the
Fort area. Here one may find new towering skyscrapers as
well as historic buildings dating far back as the 1700s.
Colombo Fort
The Portuguese were the first colonist to settle in Colombo,
establishing a small trading post they had laid the foundations for
a small fort which in time became the largest colonial fort in the
island. The Dutch expanded the fort thus creating a well old
fortified harbour.
This came in to the possession of the
British in the late 1700s and by the late 19th century the seeing
no threat to the Colombo
Harbour, began demolishing the ramparts to make way for the
development of the city. Although now there is nothing left
of the fortifications the area which was once the fort is still
refereed to as
Fort and the area out side the fort;
Pettah or
pita-koutuwa in Sinhalese which means
outer fort.
Dutch era buildings
There are none of the buildings of the Portuguese era and only a
few from the Dutch period. These include the oldest building in the
fort area, the
Dutch Hospital, the
Dutch House
which is now the
Colombo Dutch
Museum and several churches.
The President's House (formerly the Queen's House) have originally been
the Dutch governor's house, and successive British Governors made
it their office and residence. However, it has undergone
much change since the Dutch period. Adjoining the President's House
are the
Gordon Gardens, now off limits to the
public.
British era buildings
The General Treasury Building that is
houses the Ministry of Finance & Planning
Much of the old buildings of the fort area and in other parts of
the city date back to the British times, these include
governmental, commercial buildings and private houses.
Some of the notable
government building of British colonial architecture includes; the
old Parliament building which is now the Presidential Secretariat, the
Republic Building which houses the
Ministry of
Foreign affairs, but once housed the Ceylon Legislative
council, the General Treasury
Building, the old General Post Office an
Edwardian style building opposite the President's House, the
Prime Minister's
Office, the Mathematics department of the University of Colombo (formally the
Royal
College, Colombo
). Notable commercial buildings of the
British era include, the
Galle Face
Hotel,
Cargills & Millers complex, Grand Oriental
Hotel. Several old clubs of the city gives a glimpse of the British
equestrian life style, these include the Orient Club, the 80's
Club, the Colombo Cricket Club.
Culture
Annual cultural events and fairs
Colombo's most beautiful festival is the celebration of
Lord Buddha's Birth, Enlightenment and Death
all falling on the same day. In Sinhala this is known as
Vesak.
During this festival, much of the city is decorated with lanterns,
lights and special displays of light(known as
Thoran). The
festival falls in mid May and lasts a week when many Sri Lankans
visit the city to see the lantern competitions and decorations.
During this week people distribute, rice, drinks and various other
food items for free in places what is known as
Dunsal
which means charity place. These
Dunsals are popular
amongst visitors from the suburbs.
Christmas is another major festival in the city. Although Sri
Lanka's Christians make up only just over 7% of the population,
Christmas is one of the island's biggest festivals. Most streets
and commercial buildings light up from the beginning of December
and festive sales begin at all shopping centres and department
stores. Caroling and nativity plays are also frequent sights during
the season.
Performing arts
Colombo has several
performing arts
centers which are popular for their musical and theatrical
performances. The most famous performing arts centers are the
Lionel Wendt Theater, the Elphinstone and the Tower Hall, all of
which have a very rich history and made for western style
productions. The
Navarangahala also
found in the city is the country's first
national theatre
designed and build for Asiatic and local style musical and
theatrical productions.
Museums and art collections
The
National
Museum of Colombo
, was established on 1 January 1877 during the
tenure of the British Colonial Governor Sir
William Henry Gregory is
situated in cinnamon gardens area. Next to it is the Natural
History Museum. The museum houses the
crown
jewels and throne of the last king of the Kingdom of Kandy,
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. There
is also the
Colombo Dutch
Museum detailing the Dutch colonial history of the country.
Colombo does not boast a very big art gallery. There is only a
small collection of Sri Lankan masterpieces at the Art Gallery in
Green Path.
Sports
Undoubtedly the most popular sport in Sri Lanka is
cricket. The country emerged as champions of the
1996
Cricket World Cup and became
runners up in 2007. In the most recent tournament, the
ICC World Twenty20 2009 they became
runners up again. The sport is played in parks, playgrounds,
beaches and even in the streets of the city.
Colombo is also the
home for two of the country's international cricket
stadiums, Sinhalese Sports
Club's cricket stadium and
R.
Premadasa Stadium (named after late president Premadasa). Rugby is also a popular sport at the club and
school level.
Colombo has the distinction of being the
only city in the world to have 4 cricket Test venues in the past:
Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu
Stadium
, Sinhalese Sports Club Ground
, Colombo
Cricket Club Ground and Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium
. The Sugathadasa Stadium
situated in the city, is an international standard
stadium for athletics, swimming and football, also held the South Asian Games in 1991 and
2006.
The city of Colombo also has its own local football team
Colombo FC and the sport is being developed as a
part of the FIFA Goal program.
Media
Almost all major media businesses in Sri Lanka operate from
Colombo. The state media has its offices in Bullers Road and carry
out regional transmission from there, this includes the
Sri Lanka Broadcasting
Corporation (SLBC), formerly known as
Radio Ceylon and the
Sri Lanka Rupavahini
Corporation. The SLBC is the oldest radio station in
South Asia, second oldest in the world. Many of
the private broadcasting companies have their offices and
transmission stations in or around Colombo.
Sister cities
See also
Notes and references
- Census July 17, 2001 (via citypopulation.de)
- Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka;
Statistical Abstract 2007, Estimated mid year population by
district, 2002 - 2006 (pdf-file) Total
population of the three districts of the Colombo Metropolitan
Region. Retrieved on 2008-12-31.
- Buildsrilanka.com; Summary of the CMR Structure
Plan Definiton and description of the Colombo Metropolitan
Region. Retrieved on 2008-12-31.
- World Executive Colombo Hotels and City Guide
- GoAbroad.com, Embassies located in Sri Lanka
- The lake in the middle of Colombo, Lanka
Library
- 35th boat race and 31st Regatta: Oarsmen of Royal
and S. Thomas' clash on Beira waters, Daily News,
October 10, 2003
- Weatherbase
- Department of Census and Statistics, Census 2001, Additional source [1]. The totals are calculated through
enumerations made from Colombo Divisional Secretariat and the
Thimbirigasyaya Divisional Secretariat, which is also part of
Colombo Municipal Council
- Colombo UNP list rejected, BBC News,
February 16, 2006
- Independent group wins CMC, BBC News,
May 21, 2006
- Rotational mayors as Colombo gets trishaw driver as her
1st citizen, Sunday Times, May 28, 2006
- The Supreme Court Of Sri Lanka, Justice
Ministry
- Ministries of Sri Lanka Government,
Government of Sri Lanka
- Organizational Structure, Ministry of
Defence, Sri Lanka
- The drama behind the arrest of Sepala Eknayake, by Edward
Gunawardena Retd. Senior Deputy Inspector General of
Police
- Major Conventional Terrorist Incidents 1980s to
2000
- Travel Warning, United States Department of State
- Jane's Sentinel examines the success of the LTTE in
resisting the Sri Lankan forces
- President orders SB`s release,
LankaNewspapers.com, February 16, 2006
- Containerisation International, p.26, January 8
2009
- Historical Overview of Education in Sri Lanka, The British
Period: (1796 - 1948)
- History of the University of Colombo
- Colombo Fort
- Tintagel, Colombo
- Dutch Colonial Remains
- Our History , University of Colombo
Further reading
The following books contain major components on colombo;
- Changing Face of Colombo (1501-1972): Covering the Portuguese,
Dutch and British Periods, By R.L. Brohier, 1984
(Lake House, Colombo)
- The Port of Colombo 1860-1939, K. Dharmasena,
1980 (Lake House, Colombo)
- Decolonizing Ceylon: Colonialism, Nationalism, and the Politics
of Space in Sri Lanka, By Nihal Perera, 1999 (Oxford University Press)
External links
and Union
Place
and Kirilapone
and Pamankada
and Panchikawatte
and Bloemendhal
, Modera
, Mattakkuliya
and Madampitiya
.
.
.
junction - presently operating only up to Vavuniya
- Divides from Northern Line at Medawachchiya
junction - Not operational
, Russia
(since
1997)
, United
Kingdom
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