A
constitutional monarchy is a form of
government in which a
monarch acts as
head of
state within the perimeters of a written (i.e., codified),
unwritten (i.e., uncodified) or blended
constitution. It differs from
absolute monarchy in that an absolute
monarch serves as the sole source of political power in the state
and is not legally bound by any constitution.
Most constitutional monarchies employ a
parliamentary system in which the
monarch is the ceremonial head of state and a directly or
indirectly elected
prime minister is
the head of government and exercises effective political power.
In the
past, constitutional monarchs have co-existed with fascist and quasi-fascist constitutions (Fascist Italy, Francoist Spain
) and with military
dictatorships.
Contemporary constitutional monarchies
include Australia, Belgium
, Cambodia
, Canada
, Denmark
, Japan
, Jordan
, Lesotho
, Luxembourg
, Malaysia
, Morocco
, New Zealand
, The
Netherlands
, Norway
, Spain
, Sweden
, Thailand
and the United Kingdom
.
Constitutional monarchies and absolute monarchies
Constitutional monarchy in the European tradition
In character and constitutional continuity in emergencies, per the
development of constitutional monarchy in Europe and Japan.
Moreover, the ceremonial office of president (e.g. European and
Israeli parliamentary democracies), is a contemporary type of
Hegel's constitutional monarch (whether elected or appointed), yet,
his forecast of the form of government suitable to the modern world
might be perceived as prophetic. The Russian and French presidents,
with their stronger powers, might be Hegelian, wielding power
suited to the national will embodied.
Modern constitutional monarchy
As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was quite a
powerful figure, head of the
executive
branch even though his or her power was limited by the
constitution and the elected parliament. Some of the framers of the
US Constitution may have conceived of the president as being an
elected constitutional monarch, as the term was understood in their
time, following
Montesquieu's
account of the separation of powers.
The present concept of constitutional monarchy developed in the
United Kingdom, where it was the democratically elected
parliaments, and their leader, the
prime
minister, who had become those who exercised power, with the
monarchs voluntarily ceding it and contenting themselves with the
titular position. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, while
still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were
given the status of "servants of the people" to reflect the new,
egalitarian view.
In the course of France
's July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was
styled "King of the French" rather than "King of
France".
Following the
Unification of
Germany,
Otto von Bismarck
rejected the British model. In the kind of constitutional monarchy
established under the
Constitution of the German
Empire which Bismarck inspired, the
Kaiser retained considerable actual executive power,
and the
Prime Minister needed no
parliamentary vote of confidence and ruled solely by the imperial
mandate. However, this model of constitutional monarchy was
discredited and abolished following Germany's defeat in the
First World War. Later on,
Fascist Italy could also be considered as a
"constitutional monarchy" of a kind, in the sense that there was a
king as the titular head of state
while actual power was held by
Mussolini
under a constitution (to be sure, a Fascist and anti-democratic
one). This eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to
its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving
European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the
constitutional monarchy model originally developed in
Britain.
In present terms, the difference between a
parliamentary democracy that is a
constitutional monarchy and one that is a
republic, is considered more a difference of detail
than of substance. In both cases, the titular head of state -
monarch or president - serves the traditional role of embodying and
representing the nation, while the actual governing is carried out
by an elected Prime Minister.
Today
constitutional monarchies are mostly associated with Western European countries such as the
United
Kingdom
, The
Netherlands
, Belgium
, Norway
, Denmark
, Spain
, Luxembourg
, Monaco
, Liechtenstein
, and Sweden
. In
such cases it is the
prime minister
who holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the King or
Queen (or other monarch, such as a Grand Duke, in the case of
Luxembourg, or Prince in the case of Monaco and Liechtenstein)
retains only residual (but not always minor) powers. Different
nations grant different powers to their monarchs.
In the Netherlands,
Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the Monarch formally appoints
a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a
parliamentary election, while in Norway
the King
chairs special meetings of the cabinet.
In nearly all cases, the monarch is still the nominal chief
executive, but is bound by
constitutional
convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet.
Only a few monarchies
(most notably Japan
and Sweden
) have
amended their constitutions so that the monarch is no longer even
the nominal chief executive.
The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the
world today are the sixteen
Commonwealth realms under
Elizabeth II . Unlike
some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and
her Governors-General in the
Commonwealth Realms hold significant
"reserve" or "prerogative" powers, to be wielded in times of
extreme emergency or constitutional crises usually to uphold
parliamentary government. An instance of a Governor General
exercising his power was during the
1975 Australian
constitutional crisis, when the Australian Prime Minister of
the time,
Gough Whitlam, was
effectively fired from his position. This led to much speculation
as to whether this use of the Governor General's reserve powers was
appropriate, and whether Australia should become a republic.
In Thailand's constitutional monarchy, the monarch is recognized as
the Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, Upholder of the
Buddhist Religion, and Defender of the Faith. The current King
(King
Bhumibol Adulyadej) is the
longest reigning current monarch in the world and in all of
Thailand's history. King Bhumibol Adulyadej has reigned through
several political changes in the Thai government. He has played an
influential role in each incident, oftentimes acting as mediator
between disputing political opponents. (See King Bhumibol's role in
Thai
Politics.) While the monarch retains some powers from the
constitution, most particular is
Lèse majesté which protects the image
and ability of the monarch to play a role in politics and carries
modest criminal penalties for violators. Generally, the Thai people
are reverent of King Bhumibol. Much of his social influence comes
from that and the fact that the royal family is often involved in
socio-economic improvement efforts.
In both the United Kingdom and elsewhere, a common debate centres
around when it is appropriate for a monarch to use his or her
political powers. When a monarch does act, political controversy
can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is
seen to be compromised in favour of a
partisan goal. While
political scientists may champion the
idea of an "interventionist monarch" as a check against possible
illegal action by politicians, the monarchs themselves are often
driven by a more pragmatic sense of self-preservation, in which
avoiding political controversy can be seen as an important way to
retain public legitimacy and popularity.
There also exist today several
federal constitutional
monarchies. In these countries, each subdivision has a distinct
government and head of government, but all subdivisions share a
monarch who is head of state of the federation as a united whole.
The latest
country that was completely transformed from an absolute monarchy
to a constitutional democratic monarchy is Bhutan
.
List of current reigning monarchies
State |
Last constitution established |
Type of monarchy |
Monarch selected by |
|
1981 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1993 |
Co-Principality |
Selection of Bishop of La Seu
d'Urgell and election
of French
President |
|
1901 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1973 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1966 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
2002 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by
constitution |
|
1831 |
Kingdom; popular monarchy |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1981 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
2007 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession |
|
1959 |
Sultanate; Islamic absolute
monarchy |
Hereditary succession |
|
1993 |
Kingdom |
Chosen by throne
council |
|
1982 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1953 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1974 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1962 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1946 |
Empire |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1952 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1962 |
Emirate |
Hereditary succession directed approval of al-Sabah family and majority of National
Assembly |
|
1993 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed approval of College of
Chiefs |
|
1862 |
Principality |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1868 |
Grand duchy |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1957 |
Elective monarchy |
Selected from nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay
states |
|
1911 |
Principality |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1962 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1815 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1814 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1907 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1996 |
Sultanate; Islamic absolute monarchy |
Hereditary succession |
|
1975 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
2003 |
Emirate; absolute monarchy |
Hereditary succession |
|
1983 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1979 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1979 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1992 |
Kingdom; Islamic absolute monarchy |
Hereditary succession |
|
1978 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1978 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1968 |
Kingdom; absolute monarchy |
Hereditary succession |
|
1974 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
2007 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1970 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1978 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
1971 |
Elective monarchy |
Chosen
by Federal Supreme Council from rulers of Abu Dhabi |
|
1688 |
Kingdom |
Hereditary succession directed by constitution |
|
|
Theocratic elective monarchy |
Chosen by College of
Cardinals |
Previous monarchies
- The
Chinese Empire - last Imperial
Chinese rule was by the Qing Dynasty
清朝 1644–1912 - During its reign, the Qing Dynasty
became highly integrated with Chinese culture. However, its
military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with
international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the
Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. The Qing Dynasty
was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution, when the Empress
Dowager Longyu abdicated on behalf of the last emperor, Puyi, on
February 12, 1912.
- The
Korean
Empire
(Korean: 대한제국, Hanja: 大韓帝國) from 1897 to 1910 - was
a former empire of Korea
that
succeeded the Joseon
Dynasty
that ruled the nation over the past 500
years. On August 22, 1910, the Korean Empire was
annexed by Japan
with the
Japan-Korea Annexation
Treaty, beginning a 35-year period of Korea under Japanese
rule.
- British
America was ruled by the monarchy of the United
Kingdom
from 1607 until the Treaty of Paris in 1783, spanning the
early reign of King James I and
King George III, who is best
remembered as king of the American colonies. Although the
United States declared independence from the British Crown on July 4, 1776, Britain
continued its war against the colonies until the Treaty of Paris
thereby ending British authority towards the colonies from the
British Crown.
- The Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth, formed after the Union
of Lublin in 1569 and lasting until the final partition of the
state in 1795, operated much like many modern European
constitutional monarchies (into which it was officially changed by
the establishment of the Constitution of May 3, 1791)
which was the first Monarchy with constitution in the world (second
constitution ever after United States). The legislators of the
unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as
a republic under the presidency of the King. Poland-Lithuania also
followed the principle of "Rex regnat et non gubernat", had a
bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal
documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern
United
Kingdom
. The King was elected, and had the duty of
maintaining the people's rights.
- The
Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was a
brief period in the history of
Corsica (1794-1796) when the island broke with Revolutionary France and sought
military protection from Great Britain
. Corsica became an independent kingdom under
George III of England, but with its own
elected parliament and a written constitution guaranteeing local
autonomy and democratic rights.
- France
, several
times during the 19th century. Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself
Emperor of the French in what was ostensibly a constitutional
monarchy, though modern historians often class his reign as a
military dictatorship. The Bourbon
Restoration (under Louis
XVIII and Charles X), the
July Monarchy (under Louis-Philippe), and the Second Empire (under Napoleon III) were also constitutional
monarchies, although the power of the monarch varied considerably
between them.
- The
German
Empire
from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier
confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a
constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German
Empire.
- Prior
to the Iranian Revolution in
1979, Iran
was a
constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, which had
been originally established during the Persian Constitutional
Revolution in 1906.
- Portugal
until 1910 when Manuel II was overthrown by a military
coup.
- Kingdom of Serbia
, until 1918, when it merged with the State of
Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into the unitary Yugoslav Kingdom, that
was led by the Serbian dynasty of Karadjordjevic
- Mexico
was twice an
Empire. First from July 21,
1822, to March 19, 1823, with Agustín de Iturbide serving as
emperor. Then, with the help of the Austrian and Spanish crowns,
Napoleon III of France
installed Maximilian of
Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico. This attempt to create a
European-style monarchy lasted three years, from 1864 to 1867.
- Brazil
from 1815
(United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves) until 1822, with
the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of
Brazil
by Pedro I of
Brazil. The empire ended in 1889, when Pedro II was deposed by a military
coup.
- Hawai i was a constitutional
monarchy from the unification of the smaller independent chiefdoms
of O ahu, Maui, Moloka i, Lāna i, and the Hawai i (or the "Big
Island") in 1810 until the overthrow of Queen Lili uokalani in 1893 by
conspirators from United States.
- The
Grand Duchy of Finland was a
constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, was simultaneously an
autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia
.
- The Kingdom of Hungary. In
1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary. In the interwar
period (1920–1944) Hungary
remained a constitutional monarchy without a
reigning monarch.
Prior to the Korean Empire, several dynastic rulers of Goguryeo,
Silla, Baekje, Balhae and Goryeo claimed the right to imperial
status and used imperial titles at one time or another.
Other situations
See also
Notes
- Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of
Laws. Legal Classics Library, 1924.
- www.monarchist.org.au
- Belgium is the only existing popular monarchy — a system in
which the monarch's title is linked to the people rather than a
state. The title of Belgian kings is not King of Belgium,
but instead King of the Belgians. Another unique feature
of the Belgian system is that the new monarch does not
automatically assume the throne at the death or abdication of his
predecessor; he only becomes monarch upon taking a constitutional
oath.
References
- G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of
Right (Allen W. Wood, ed., H.B. Nisbet, trans.) Cambridge University Press, 1991.
ISBN 0-521-34438-7 (originally published as Georg Friedrich Wilhelm
Hegel, Philosophie des Rechts, 1820).
- John Locke, Two Treatises of
Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration. (Ian Shapiro,
ed., with essays by John Dunn, Ruth W. Grant and Ian Shapiro.) New
Haven: Yale University Press,
2003 (Two Treatises first pub. 1690). ISBN 0-300-10017-5.