Educational accreditation is a type of
quality assurance process under which
services and operations of an educational institution or program
are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable
standards are met. If standards are met, accredited status is
granted by the agency.
In most countries in the world, the function of educational
accreditation is conducted by a
government organization, such as a ministry of education.
In the
United
States
, however, the quality assurance process is
independent of government and performed by private membership
associations.
Educational accreditation in the United States
A school does not necesarily need to be accredited to operate in
the United States. The U.S. Department of Education and the
Council for
Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) (a
non-governmental organization)
both recognize reputable accrediting bodies for institutions of
higher education and provide
guidelines as well as resources and relevant data regarding these
accreditors. Neither the U.S. Department of Education nor CHEA
accredit individual institutions.
In the United States, educational accreditation has long been
established as a
peer review process
coordinated by accreditation commissions and member institutions.
The federal government began to play a limited role in
accreditation in 1952 with reauthorization of the
GI Bill for
Korean War
veteran. The original GI Bill
legislation had stimulated establishment of new colleges and
universities, including some of dubious quality. The 1952
legislation designated the existing peer review process as the
basis for measuring institutional quality; GI Bill eligibility was
limited to students enrolled at accredited institutions included on
a list of federally recognized accredited institutions published by
the U.S. Commissioner of Education.
With the creation of the U.S. Department of Education and under the
terms of the
Higher
Education Act of 1965, as amended, the
U.S. Secretary of Education is
required by law to publish a list of
nationally
recognized accrediting agencies that the Secretary has
determined to be reliable authorities as to the quality of
education or training provided by the institutions of higher
education and the higher education programs they accredit. There is
no similar federal government list of recognized accreditation
agencies for primary and secondary schools. There is wide variation
among the individual states in the requirements applied to
non-public primary and secondary schools.
Regional accreditors
There are six
regional
accreditors. They accredit (and therefore include among their
membership) nearly all
elementary
schools,
junior high schools,
middle schools,
high schools, and public and private
institutions of
higher education
that are academic in nature.
National accreditors
There are 52 recognized national accrediting bodies. National
accreditors get their name from their common policy of accrediting
schools nationwide or even worldwide. Requirements for
accreditation vary from each national accreditor according to the
specialty. In general terms, the national accreditors accredit
post-secondary programs that are vocational, technical and career
in nature. Some of these programs offer degrees and some only
certificates.
Five of these bodies are listed by the Department of Education as
general in nature and national in scope. These are
Regional versus national accreditation
Regionally accredited schools are predominantly academically
oriented, non-profit institutions. Nationally accredited schools
are predominantly for-profit and offer vocational, career or
technical programs. Every college has the right to set standards
and refuse to accept
transfer
credits. However, if a student has gone to a nationally
accredited school it may be particularly difficult to transfer
credits (or even credit for a degree earned) if he or she then
applies to a regionally accredited college. Some regionally
accredited colleges have general policies against accepting any
credits from nationally accredited schools, others are reluctant to
because regional schools feel that national schools' academic
standards are lower than their own or they are unfamiliar with the
particular school. There have been lawsuits regarding nationally
accredited schools who led prospective students to believe that
they would have no problem transferring their credits to regionally
accredited schools, most notably
Florida Metropolitan
University and
Crown College,
Tacoma, Washington. The
U.S. Department of Education has
stated, however, that its criteria for recognition of accreditors
"do not differentiate between types of accrediting agencies, so the
recognition granted to all types of accrediting agencies —
regional,institutional, specialized, and programmatic — is
identical." However the same letter states that "the specific scope
of recognition varies according to the type of agency
recognized."
Specialized and professional accreditors
Specialized and professional accreditors can by recognized by the
U.S. Department of Education recognition, CHEA, or by membership in
the
Association
of Professional and Specialized Accreditors.
Of the specialized and
professional accreditors, the more visible include the American Dental Association
Commission on Dental Accreditation, the American Bar Association (whose
accreditation is a prerequisite to sitting for the bar exam in the
vast majority of states, the most notable exception being California
), the National Architectural
Accrediting Board (whose accreditation is a prerequisite to
sitting for the architectural licensing exams in most states), the
Association of
American Medical Colleges for medical schools, The
Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business for
business schools, the American Veterinary
Medical Association for schools of veterinary medicine, the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology for engineering schools,
the National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation automotive
schools, and HVAC Excellence for Heating, Ventilation, Air
Conditioning, and Refrigeration (HVACR) programs.
Religious accreditors
Religious schools may seek regional accreditation or a secular
national accreditation, or they have the option of four different
specialized agencies, which include
These groups specialize in accrediting theological and religious
schools including
seminaries and graduate
schools of theology, as well as broader-scope universities that
teach from a religious viewpoint and may require students and/or
faculty to subscribe to a Statement of Faith.
The remainder of the accrediting organizations are formed by groups
of professional, vocational, or trade schools whose programs are
industry/profession specific and at times can require technical
oversight not provided by the broader accrediting organizations
(i.e. the
Commission on Opticianry
Accreditation, the
Accreditation
Council for Pharmacy Education).
Unaccredited institutions
Despite the widely recognized benefits and accountability of
accreditation, some institutions choose, for various reasons, not
to participate in an accreditation process or fall short of the
required standards. According to the United States Department of
Education, it is possible for postsecondary educational
institutions and programs to elect not to seek accreditation but
nevertheless provide a quality postsecondary education. Yet, other
unaccredited schools simply award degrees and diploma without merit
for a price.
An ongoing problem within higher education accreditation is the
existence of
diploma mills and
accreditation mills. These
organizations exist to grant degrees that appear valid but are
offered to individuals without academic course work and give a
willing buyer a degree for money. Sometimes both the buyer and
seller know this and sometimes a potential student is not aware of
the fraud. In some cases a diploma mills and/or its "accreditor" is
unrecognized and exists only at a
post office box or
website owned by the proprietor of the
school.
In the
United
States, unaccredited degrees may not be acceptable for
financial aid, civil service or other employment
purposes. Criminal penalties sometimes apply should such a
degree be presented in lieu of one from an accredited school. The
use of unaccredited degree titles is legally restricted or illegal
in some jurisdictions.
Jurisdictions that have restricted or made
illegal the use of credentials from unaccredited schools include
Oregon
, Michigan
, Maine
, North Dakota
New
Jersey
, Washington
, Nevada
, Illinois
, Indiana
, and
Texas
. Many other states are also considering
restrictions on unaccredited degree use in order to help prevent
fraud.
Some state laws allow authorities to shut down large illegal
operations of unaccredited schools or
diploma mills. In November 2005, a group of
operators in Seattle was caught running several diploma mills. The
group was indicted after a
Secret Service
investigation.
Religious-exempt degrees
Twenty-one jurisdictions in the USA, such as Florida, North
Carolina, Virginia, Washington and Louisiana, allow exemption from
accreditation for certain religious schools. This means that
religious schools can grant legal
degrees (
doctoral degrees,
bachelor's degrees etc.) to students,
without government oversight. The law in the state of Oregon
requires religious exempt colleges to meet certain standards, so
there is not a full exemption. According to an article in the
Oregon Daily Emrald "[d]egrees from religious exempt
schools were used primarily to attain
church-related employment", and "employers
often did not regard degrees from unaccredited religious exempt
colleges on the same level as degrees from accredited
institutions". In Virginia an "exempt school must clearly state in
its catalogs and promotional materials that it is exempt from the
requirements of state regulations and oversight". In Florida, a
religious exempt-school has to include "a religious modifier or the
name of a religious
patriarch,
saint, person, or symbol of the church" in the name of
the institution, and the institution has to only offer "educational
programs that prepare students for religious vocations as
ministers, professionals, or laypersons in the categories of
ministry, counseling, theology, education, administration, music,
fine arts, media communications, or social work" and "each degree
title must include a religious modifier that immediately precedes,
or is included within, any of the following degrees:
Associate of Arts,
Associate of Science,
Bachelor of Arts,
Bachelor of Science,
Master of Arts,
Master of Science,
Doctor of Philosophy, and
Doctor of Education". The
Employer's
Guide of South Carolina makes a difference between
religious-exempt degrees and degree mills, but occasionally
diploma mills have been said to operate
as religious universities to avoid laws against diploma mills.
Religious exempt degrees are often used in a religious, and not a
secular, context. In certain US states - North Dakota, Nevada,
Texas, Washington, Maine and New Jersey - it is illegal to include
religious-exempt degrees on
resumes, letterheads, business cards,
advertisements and announcements, while this is legal in other
states. In the state of Indiana it is an "incurable deceptive act"
for someone to "claim, either orally or in writing, to possess a
doctorate degree or use a title, a word, letters, an insignia, or
an abbreviation associated with a doctorate degree, unless the
individual" has been awarded a doctorate degree from an institution
which is accredited by a professional accrediting agency which is
recognized,
or "a religious seminary, institute, college,
or university whose certificates, diplomas, or degrees clearly
identify the religious character of the educational program".
Accordingly, religious-exempt titles are valid to use in Indiana.
Religious modifiers to a
Ph.D. could be
in
Religion or
in Metaphysics. Other religious degrees
are, for example,
Master of Apologetics,
Master of
Theological Studies,
Bachelor of Religion,
Doctor of Theology,
Doctor of Ministry,
Doctor of
Biblical Studies,
Doctor of Christian Counseling,
Doctor of Christian Philosophy, and
Doctor of
Metaphysical Theology. In September 2005 there were in the
state of Washington "48 schools currently offering programs that
are religious in nature" and "exempt from authorization under the
Degree-granting Institutions Act". Some religious-exempt-schools
offer distant, and even online, education, and others offer lengthy
degree programs and classes on campus. Rick Walston states in
Walston's Guide to Christian Distance Learning that "some
very good, legitimate, and well-recognized schools are not
accredited."
Educational accreditation outside the U.S.
In much of the world, institutions of higher education are
authorized to operate by the government, typically through a
Ministry of Education (MOE). The MOE is responsible for ensuring
the institutions meet government standards, so in a sense the
government serves as an accreditation body, too. For example, in
Australia, higher education providers generally need approval of
the federal or state governments (or a non-government body to whom
this power has been delegated), or an Act of Parliament, depending
on the nature of the institution.
Canada
In Canada most universities are operated by the
provincial government for their
respective provinces. There is no institutional accreditation in
Canada. Membership in the
Association
of Universities and Colleges of Canada along with the
provincial charter is considered
de facto accreditation
for not-for-profit universities and university-degree level
colleges.
Germany
The
Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and
Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of
Germany (
Kultusministerkonferenz or KMK) was
founded in 1948 by an agreement between the
states of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Among its core responsibilities, the KMK ensures quality
development and continuity in
tertiary education.
Bachelor and
Master
programs must be accredited in accordance to a resolution of the
Kultusministerkonerenz.
The German
Council of Science and Humanities (
Wissenschaftsrat) was founded on September
5, 1957 and conducts institutional accreditation of private and
religious universities since 2001.
The
Foundation for the Accreditation of Study Programs in
Germany or
Accreditation Council (Akkreditierungsrat)
was created in a KMK resolution on October 15, 2004. The
Accreditation Council certifies accreditation agencies and
establishes guidelines and criteria for program accreditation.
There are currently seven certified agencies.
- AHPGS – Accreditation Agency for Study Programs in Special
Education, Care, Health Sciences and Social Work
- AKAST – Agency for Quality Assurance and Accreditation of
Canonical Study Programs
- AQUIN – Accreditation, Certification and Quality Assurance
Institute
- AQAS – Agency for Quality Assurance by Accreditation of Study
Programs
- ASIIN – Accreditation Agency for Degree Programs in
Engineering, Informatics/Computer Science, the Natural Sciences and
Mathematics
- FIBAA - Foundation for International Business Administration
Accreditation
- ZevA – Central Evaluation- and Accreditation Agency
Hannover
These agencies accredit programs of study for Bachelor and Master
degrees from state or state recognized
Higher Education institutions in
Germany.
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Academic and Vocational
Qualificati is appointed by the Secretary for Education of
Education Bureau as the Accreditation Authority and QR Authority
under the Qualifications Framework of Hong Kong (HKQF).
Assessment is made with reference to local and internationally
recognised standards through a process of peer review. The HKCAAVQ
will issue an accreditation report on the outcome of the
accreditation activity.
India
Accreditation is compulsory for all
universities in India
except those
created through an act of Parliament. Without accreditation,
"It is emphasized that these fake institutions have no legal entity
to call themselves as University/Vishwvidyalaya and to award
‘degrees’ which are not treated as valid for academic/employment
purposes." The
University Grants
Commission Act 1956 explains,
"the right of conferring or granting degrees shall be
exercised only by a University established or incorporated by or
under a Central Act, or a State Act, or an Institution deemed to be
University or an institution specially empowered by an Act of the
Parliament to confer or grant degrees.
Thus, any institution which has not been created by an
enactment of Parliament or a State Legislature or has not been
granted the status of a Deemed-to-be-University, is not entitled to
award a degree."
Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by autonomous
institutions established by the
University Grants
Commission.
Ireland
Legitimate higher education qualifications in Ireland are placed
on, or formally aligned, with the National Framework of
Qualifications. This framework was established by the
National
Qualifications Authority of Ireland in accordance with the
Qualifications (Education and Training) Act (1999). It is illegal
under the Universities Act (1997) for any body offering higher
education services to use the term "university" without the
permission of the Minister for Education and Science. It is
likewise illegal under the Institutes of Technologies Acts
(1992-2006) to use the term "institute of technology" or "regional
technology college" without permission.
Israel
The Council for Higher Education is, by a 1958 law, the only
institution qualified to accredit universities and colleges in
Israel. The council acts as a reviewer of the activity of the
academic centers in Israel and sets terms and requirements for
every degree given.
Malaysia
Accreditation was done by the
Lembaga Akreditasi Negara
( ), a statutory body created through an act of Parliament, for
certificates, diplomas and degree courses provided by private
higher educational institutions (defined as institutions providing
tertiary or
post-secondary education)
until 2007 when the body was replaced with the
Malaysian Qualifications
Agency.
Prior to the enactment of the legislations that provided for the
establishment of these bodies, no specific framework for
accreditation existed and institutions only required a valid
registration status from the
Ministry of Education of
Malaysia.
Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium)
The
Accreditation
Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO) is a
binational organization formed by
treaty in
2003 to independently ensure the quality of higher education in the
Netherlands and Flanders by assessing and accrediting programs. As
a result of separate legislation in the two jurisdictions,
accreditation policies and procedures differ between the two
countries.
Portugal
The Portuguese
Agência de Acreditação (state-managed
Accreditation Agency) for higher education is, since 2007,
responsible for the publication of the national ranking of higher
education institutions and degrees.
Within the
Bologna process a state
agency was set up by the
Portuguese Government to offer central
and regulated accreditation. Previously, Portugal had used a system
of professional accreditation and degree recognition by sector,
with a number of associations, Unions and Professional Orders
(
Ordens Profissionais): the
Ordem dos Médicos (for
medical doctors), the
Ordem dos Engenheiros (for
engineers), and the
Ordem dos Advogados (for
lawyers).
The Sindicato dos Engenheiros Técnicos (for
technical engineers), was created as the
professional association of technical engineers, who were not full
chartered engineers, having as mandatory qualification a simple
short-cycle 3-year bachelor degree (
bacharelato) awarded
by the Portuguese
polytechnical
institutes and now discontinued since the mid-2000s.
The Associação de Técnicos de Contas (for
accounting technicians), the Câmara de
Revisores Oficiais de Contas (for
financial auditors, similar to Chartered
Accountants), and the Sindicato dos Enfermeiros (for
nurses) are examples of organizations which were
oriented towards professions that at least until the 1990s did not
demand a specific
academic degree.
For example, to be member of the Câmara de Revisores Oficiais de
Contas (for
financial auditors),
candidats needed to have two years of experience and must have a
degree in a range of possible area (Economics, Finance, Business
Administration, Accounting or Law). Like in other similar
international associations (
Chartered Accountant), the Câmara de
Revisores Oficiais de Contas have very selective
examinations.
Some organizations (starting as Associations or Unions) were
upgraded later into
Ordens like, for example, the
Ordem dos Farmacêuticos (for
pharmacists), the
Ordem dos Arquitectos (for
architects), the
Ordem dos Biólogos (for
biologists), the
Ordem dos Economistas (for
economists), the
Ordem dos Enfermeiros (for
nurses), and the
Ordem dos Revisores
Oficiais de Contas (for
Chartered Accountants and
financial auditors). In addition, the state
through the ministry for higher education, has usually been the
central highest accreditation entity, and thus it is illegal to
award degrees without government approval.
For many years, there were state-accredited institutions, both
public and private, awarding unaccredited degrees by the
Ordens. This dubious situation changed in the mid-2000s
with the deep reorganization imposed by the
Bologna process implementation in Portugal,
the creation of the new central state-managed Accreditation Agency
and the foundation of many regulated new
Ordens covering
dozens of professions until then unregulated by this type of
professional organization.
In 1999, over 15,000 students enrolled in Portuguese higher
learning institutions and newly graduates in the fields of
engineering and architecture, were enrolled or were awarded a
degree in a non-accredited course. Those students and graduates
with no official recognition were not admitted to any
Ordem and were unable to develop professional activity in
their presumed field of expertise (e.g. architect; chemical,
electrical, or civil/structural engineer; lawyer; accountant; and
financial auditor, among other professionals). At the same time,
only one accredited engineering course was offered by a private
university, and over 90% of the accredited courses with recognition
in the fields of engineering, architecture, and law were
exclusively provided by state-run universities.
In 2007, the compulsory closing of some problematic and unreliable
private higher education institutions (like the defunct
Independente University and the
Moderna University) which in
general had been accredited by the state during the boom of private
teaching of the 1990s, but usually without providing any accredited
degrees in accordance with the requirements of the main
Ordens was seen as a remedy of last resort in order to
prevent a further loss of credibility among some sectors within the
non-public university higher education.
Russia
In Russia accreditation/ national recognition is directly overseen
by the
Education Ministry
of Russia.
Since 1981, Russia has followed the UNESCO
international regulations to ensure Russian institutions and
international institutions meet high quality standards. It
is illegal for a school to operate without government
approval.
The Russian Federation has a three-step recognition system:
- License
- Attestation
- Accreditation.
South Korea
It is illegal to falsely claim a degree in South Korea if it does
not meet accredited approval. For example, in March 2006
prosecutors in Seoul "broken up a crime ring selling bogus music
diplomas from Russia, which helped many land university jobs and
seats in orchestras." People who falsely used these degrees were
criminally charged.
United Kingdom
In the UK it is illegal to offer a qualification that is or might
seem to be UK degree unless the awarding body is recognised by the
Secretary of State, a Royal Charter or Act of Parliament to grant
degrees. Prosecutions under the Education Reform Act are rare, as
many
unaccredited awarding bodies are based outside UK jurisdiction.
It is also worth noting in this context that the Business Names Act
1985 made it an offence for any business in the UK to use the word
"university" in its name without the formal approval of the
Privy
Council.
Private higher (HE) and further education (FE) institutions (here
distinguished from the qualifications that they offer) are
unregulated, but may choose to become accredited by various
non-regulatory bodies such as the
British Accreditation Council
or the
British Council and
Accreditation
Service for International Colleges in order to demonstrate
third-party assessment of the quality of education they offer. The
Universities Funding Council, and Polytechnics and Colleges Funding
Council established in the UK under the 1988 Education Reform Act
have responsibility for the public funding of the FE and HE
sector.
Prosecutions under legislation other than the Education Reform Act
1988 do occur. In 2004, Thames Valley College in London was
prosecuted under the
Trade
Descriptions Act for offering degrees from the 'University of
North America', a
limited
liability company set up by themselves in the US with no
academic staff and no premises other than a mail forwarding
service. (Note that this organization differs from the current
University of North America, a non-accredited institution.)
See also
References
- Dr. Marjorie Peace Lenn, Global Trends in Quality Assurance in Higher
Education, World Education News & Reviews, v. 5,
no. 2, Spring 1992, pages 1 and 21
- U.S. Department of Education, Accreditation in the United States
- U.S. Department of Education, State Regulation of Private Schools, June 2000.
- College Review Journal, Complete List of National Accrediting
Agencies.
- Accreditation Search from the United States Department
of Education
- 'Accreditation in the United States',
United States Department
of Education website
- Types of Accreditation, Education USA
website
- What is the Difference Between Regional and
National Accreditation, Yahoo! Education website
- Demanding Credit, Inside Higher Education
website, dated October 19, 2005 by Scott Jaschik
- Tussling Over Transfer of Credit, Inside
Higher Education website, February 26, 2007 by Doug
Lederman
- Student Takes on College and Wins, Seattle
Times, February 24, 2006 by Emily Heffter and Nick Perry
- Bad Education Orlando Weekly, April 14, 2005, by
Jeffrey C. Billman
- A Battle Over Standards At For-Profit
Colleges, Wall Street Journal, October 3, 2005 by John
Hechinger
- Carol Griffiths, US Department of Education Office
of Post Secondary Education, letter dated August 30, 2007
- Accreditation and Quality Assurance, U.S.
Department of Education fact sheet, accessed August 6, 2008
- United States Department of Education. Diploma Mills and Accreditation (accessed 15
September 2006)
- U.S. Department of Education, Diploma Mills and Accreditation
- Oregon Office of Degree Authorization:
http://www.osac.state.or.us/oda/unaccredited.aspx
-
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/Non-accreditedSchools_78090_7.pdf
- Maine Higher Education - Non-Accredited
Schools
- State mulls online learning by the
Associated
Press, Billings Gazette, January 30,
2005
- Higher Education Coordinating Board
- Institutions Whose Degrees are Illegal to Use in
Texas
- Is Oregon the only state that disallows use of
unaccredited degrees? Oregon Office of Degree Authorization
- Stephen Phillips A stress-free PhD? A snap at $250
The Higher Education
Supplement 25 November 2005
- Oregon Student Assistance Commission Office of
Degree Authorization (ODA): Religious Exempt Schools
- Gabe Bradley: Bill addresses degrees from
unaccredited institutions
- State Council of Higher Education for Virginia:
Private Institutions that Confer Religious Degree
- Florida Statutes 1005.06. A letter stating that
an institution (Esoteric Theological Seminary) meets the criteria
for non-oversight, is viewable here.
- College Degrees in South Carolina: An Employer’s
Guide
- Butler, D. (n.d.) Ivory Tower Rip Offs - How Online Degree Mills Work.
(Originally printed on about.com).
- ODA: Frequently Asked Questions
- ISOM Graduates May Receive an Associate, Bachelor or
Master’s Degree from Christian Leadership University
- Indiana SENATE BILL No. 138
- Esoteric Theological Seminary religious Ph.D.
programs
- Columbia Evangelical Seminary: The CES Legal
Status
- Triune Biblical University: TBU 2008 & 2009 Catalog of
External Degree Programs
- INSTITUTE FOR CHRISTIAN WORKS: DOCTOR OF CHRISTIAN
PHILOSOPHY DEGREE REQUIREMENTS
- International College Of Metaphysical Theology:
Doctor of Metaphysical Theology Degree, D.MT.
- Higher Education Coordinating Board Information
Item: Degree-Granting Institutions Act: Overview
- Evergreen Christian University
- Lion of Judah University
- Pillsbury College & Seminary
- Patriot Bible University
- Rick Walston, Walston's Guide to Christian Distance
Learning, 5th ed., 2007, p. 98
-
http://www.mtroyal.ca/wcm/groups/public/documents/pdf/degreeaccredincanada.pdf
- About AUCC: Membership
- Standing Conference of the Ministries of Education and Cultural
Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, Foundation and Composition
- Standing Conference of the Ministries of Education and Cultural
Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, Qualitätssicherung im Hochschulbereich
- Kultusministerkonferenz. Ländergemeinsame Strukturvorgaben
gemäß § 9 Abs. 2 HRG für die Akkreditierung von Bachelor- und
Masterstudiengängen. October 10, 2003, amended September 18,
2008
- Council of Sciences and Humanities, Function
- Resolution of the Standing Conference of the Ministeries of
Education and Cultural Affairs of the Federal Republic of Germany
of December 16, 2004. Agreement on the Foundation „[
http://www.akkreditierungsrat.de/fileadmin/Seiteninhalte/Stiftung/recht.Grundlagen/Foundation_Law.pdf
Foundation: Accreditation of Study Courses in Germany.]”
- Accreditation Council, Mission Statement
- Accreditation Council, Accreditation Agencies
- Accreditation Council, Accreditation of Programs
- http://www.education.nic.in/higedu.asp
-
http://www.moit.gov.il/NR/exeres/23EF518B-39A3-4365-A9E3-A9D600E509BA.htm
(Hebrew)
- Accreditation
Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders official
website
- 15 mil alunos frequentam cursos não
reconhecidos - Expresso (Nº1382), 24 April 1999, accessed December
2006 (in Portuguese)
- Pedro Sousa Tavares, Governo desencadeia saneamento das privadas,
Diário de Notícias (26 May
2007)
- http://www.russianenic.ru/english/index.html
-
http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060320/od_uk_nm/oukoe_uk_crime_korea_1
- The Education Reform Act 1988, section 214
(Unrecognised degrees)
- Evidence given by Charles Clarke, then Secretary of State
for Education and Skills MP, to the Parliamentary
Select Committee on
Education and Skills, 7 July 2004
- 1988 Education Reform Act sections 132 and
133
- Alex Thompson, 2004. College fined £1,000. East End
Life 29/11/04, Tower Hamlets Council. Google cache
External links
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