Homophobia (from
Greek homós: one and the same;
phóbos: fear,
phobia) is defined as
an "irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against
homosexuality or homosexuals", or
individuals perceived to be homosexual; it is also defined as
"unreasoning fear of or antipathy toward homosexuals and
homosexuality", "fear of or contempt for lesbians and gay men", as
well as "behavior based on such a feeling". For the European
Parliament
"homophobia can be defined as an irrational fear of
and aversion to homosexuality and to lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender (LGBT) people based on prejudice and similar to racism,
xenophobia, anti-semitism and sexism". It is defined by
behavior (such as discrimination) as well as motivation (such as
fear, antipathy or contempt).
Homophobic is the
adjective form of this term used to
describe the qualities of these characteristics, while
homophobe is the
noun form
given as a title to individuals labeled with homophobic
characteristics.
Homophobia was first used with its modern
meaning in 1971, although it was coined in the mid-
1950s. Use of the word has been criticized as
pejorative against those with differing value
positions, with several researchers proposing alternative words to
describe prejudice and discrimination against
gay and
lesbian people. The term
"internalized homophobia" is used to describe a prejudice against
one's own homosexuality.
Etymology and usage
Kenneth Smith in 1971 was the first person to use
homophobia as a personality profile to describe the
psychological aversion to homosexuality. The use was also adopted
by
Psychologist and
gay activist George Weinberg in his 1972
book
Society and the Healthy Homosexual, published one
year before the
American Psychiatric
Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of
mental disorders. Weinberg's term
became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates,
and their allies. He describes the concept as a medical
phobia:
Conceptualizing prejudice against people who are gay or lesbian as
a
social problem worthy of scholarly
attention was not new, but Weinberg was the first to give it a
name.
The construction of the word is comparable to
xenophobia, a much older term referring to
individual or cultural hostility to foreigners or outsiders.
Tracing the origin of the word to the
Greek 'homos' fails to make sense
etymologically, because 'homo' means 'the same',
which would render 'homophobia' to mean a fear of things that are
the same. Gay historian Boswell criticised the word on this basis,
suggesting "homosexophobia" instead. This interpretation of
etymology has been challenged by arguing that as “homo” is
derogatory slang for gay people, most people will tend to see the
“homo” in homophobia as referring to "homosexuals"; "a reasonable
interpretation of homophobia is fear of 'homos,' that is,
homosexuals".
The word
homophobia was also used early in the 20th
century, albeit rarely. It then had the meaning of "fear or hatred
of the male sex or humankind." In this use, the word derived from
the
Latin root
homo (Latin, "man" or
"human") with the Greek ending
-phobia
("fear").
Despite its general shortcomings etymologically, the word can be
used to describe the fear of a
heterosexual that they will be approached
romantically by someone of the same sex. It also can describe the
apparently fear-based reactions of recoiling from unintentional
close contact with another male or of being in close proximity to
other males in certain situations such as while in the
restroom. These are typically fear-based reactions,
but the fear is usually that of the
social
stigma of being labelled homosexual.
The word first appeared in print in an article written for the May
23, 1969, edition of the American
tabloid
Screw, using the word to
refer to straight men's fear that others might think they are gay.
A possible etymological precursor was
homoerotophobia,
coined by Wainwright Churchill in
Homosexual Behavior Among
Males in 1967.
It was first formally used in its modern sense in the press in
1981, when the
The New York
Times reported that the
General
Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn
homosexuality.
The term homophobia is likened to and used alongside other terms
denoting bigotry and discrimination. In a 1998 address,
Coretta Scott King asserted that,
"Homophobia is like
racism and
anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in
that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their
humanity, their dignity and personhood." Likewise,
George Yancey, writing in
Christian Ethics
Today associates "
sexism, racism, class
distinctions, or homophobia" with one another and views them all as
"varieties of discrimination," although he argues that they are not
identical.
Criticism of the term
Homonegativity is based on the term
"homonegativism" used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they
coined the term for their research in order to avoid "homophobia",
which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of
motivation. Other terms, such as heterosexism, have been proposed
as alternatives that are more
morphologically parallel, and which
do not have the association with
phobia.
Heterosexism refers to the presumption that all people are
heterosexual and/or to the privileging of heterosexuality over
homosexuality.
Gregory M.
Herek, a researcher at the University of
California, Davis
, compared several related terms: "homophobia",
"heterosexism", and "sexual
prejudice". In preferring the third term, he noted that
"homophobia" was "probably more widely used and more often
criticized", and observed that "Its critics note that homophobia
implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as
an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual
psychopathology rather than a
socially reinforced prejudice." He preferred "sexual prejudice" as
being descriptive and free of presumptions about motivations, and
lacking in value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of
those so labeled.
In 1993,
behavioral scientists
William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles concluded that the usage
of the term "as it is usually used, makes an illegitimately
pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value
positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality"
itself, arguing that the term may be used as an
ad hominem argument against those who
advocate values or positions of which the speaker does not approve.
The
social construct of
masculinity is not defined by attraction to
females alone but also by negative attraction to males. The
implication of a fear of something unmasculine, given the term's
scientific etymology, may be used illegitimately to imply that
anyone with a different opinion is unmasculine. A group of
psychologists from the University of Arkansas conducted research
that showed that participants responses were not fear-based but
reflected a disapproval of homosexuality that was due to other
factors, such as disgust.
The
National Association for Research & Therapy of
Homosexuality, an organization affiliated with the
ex-gay movement, describes the term homophobia as
being "often used inaccurately to describe any person who objects
to homosexual behavior on either moral, psychological or medical
grounds." They claim that, "Technically, however, the terms
actually denotes a person who has a phobia — or irrational fear —
of homosexuality. Principled disagreement, therefore, cannot be
labeled 'homophobia.'"
Mormons have criticized the use of the term when used to describe
people as 'homophobic', as they see this as a slur against those
who disagree with homosexuality.
Classification
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different
types have been postulated, among which are internalized
homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized
homophobia, and others. There were also ideas to classify
homophobia, racism, and sexism as an
intolerant personality disorder.
Homophobia is not mentioned directly in any diseases
classifications (
Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related
Health Problems). For some, homophobia is a non-clinical
term.
David Hall contrasts homophobia with
heterosexism, which he describes as a belief
that heterosexuality is better than homosexuality, and deserving of
distinct rights and privileges: "A phobia is an irrational fear.
When you have a phobia, you either flee what you fear or attack and
attempt to destroy what you fear", and cites
Matthew Shepard and
Lawrence King as victims of this. He explains that
also, "people who are fired from their jobs for being lesbian, gay,
bisexual, or transgender are victims of homophobia."
Internalized homophobia
Internalized homophobia (or
egodystonic
homophobia) refers to negative feeling towards oneself because of
homosexuality. This term has been criticized because holding
negative attitudes does not necessarily involve a phobia, and the
term "internalized stigma" is sometimes used instead. It causes
severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own
sexual orientation. Internalized
homophobia is thus a form of
cognitive dissonance; the individual
cannot reconcile the conflicting conscious or unconscious sexual
desires with values and tenets gained from society, religion or
upbringing.
Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual
desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur
for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social
beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This
discordance often causes
clinical
depression, and the unusually high
suicide rate among gay teenagers (up to 30 percent
of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to
this phenomenon. Psychotherapy, such as
gay affirmative psychotherapy,
and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group or an ex-gay
group can help resolve the internal conflict between a religious
and a sexual identity.
The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to
conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need
to promote or conform to the expectations of
heteronormativity or heterosexism. This
can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced
outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of
appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". This might
also include less overt behavior like making assumptions about the
gender of a person's romantic partner, or about
gender roles. Some also apply this label to
LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies,
such as those that find
civil unions an
acceptable alternative to
same-sex
marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the
result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a
cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some
debate.
Some argue that some or most people who are homophobic have
repressed their own homosexuality, but this argument is somewhat
controversial.
In 1996, a controlled study of 64
heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and
self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia
found that men who were found to be homophobic (as
measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely
to experience more erectile responses when
exposed to homoerotic images than
non-homophobic men.
Social homophobia
The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of
social homophobia. Theorists including
Calvin Thomas and
Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia
can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay.
Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about
masculinity.
They have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts
and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about
the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this
class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from
gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a
heteronormative culture, thereby
attempting to prevent themselves from being labeled and treated as
a gay person. This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person
may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of
establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus
gaining social validation. This concept is also recurrent in
interpretations of
racism and
xenophobia.
Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method
of protection of male masculinity.
Various
psychoanalytic theories
explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex
impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely
hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or
reaction formation.
Political ideology
The
Soviet
Union
under Vladimir Lenin
decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other
European countries. The
Russian Communist Party
effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality,
when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet
criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place. However,
some left-wing figures have considered homosexuality a "
bourgeois disease", a right-wing movement or a
"Western disease". Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later
by
Joseph Stalin and homosexuality
remained illegal under Article 121 until the
Yeltsin era.
In China homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740. When
Mao came to power, the government thought of
homosexuality as "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and
"[d]uring the
cultural
revolution (1966 - 76), people who were homosexual faced their
worst period of persecution in Chinese history." Despite there
being no law in the
communist People's
Republic against homosexuality, "police regularly rounded up gays
and lesbians." Other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people
and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public
order."
The
Communist regime in Cuba
persecuted
homosexual people throughout the 1960s and 1970s, but has taken a
more tolerant position in recent years.
The
North
Korean
government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of
capitalist society, and denounces it as
promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity. In North Korea,
"violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished
with up to two years' imprisonment. However, according to the North
Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and
rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born
with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due
respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to
repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."
Robert Mugabe, the leader of Zimbabwe
, has waged a
violent campaign against people
who are homosexual, arguing that before colonisation,
Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts. His first
major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995,
during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair. He told an audience:
"If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest
them and hand them over to the police!" In September 1995,
Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual
acts. In 1997, a court found
Canaan
Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of
Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.
Precursor to a climate of prejudice
Sexist beliefs
Some
gender theorists interpret the
fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger
reaction in homophobic people than female-to-female (
lesbian) as meaning that people who are homophobic
feel more threatened by the perceived subversion of the
male-superior
gender paradigm.
According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is
defined not only by the desire for women but also (and more
importantly) by the denial of desire for men. Therefore,
expressions of homophobia serve as a means of accenting their male
nature by distancing themselves from the threatening concept of
their own potential femininity, and consequently belittling gay
men, as not being
real males. According to this theory,
the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female
homosexuality is
sexist in its underlying
belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to
"replace" a woman during intercourse with another man
necessarily degrades his own masculine status.
Miller's view implies that only the receptive or submissive role in
a homosexual act is regarded as
emasculating, as is the case in many cultures.
His specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require a
"desire for women" seems to preclude the possibility of
asexuality or
bisexuality. It is not made clear why
heterosexual men would "need" to fear gay people in order to affirm
maleness unless they perceived that their sexuality was already
threatened by another factor.
Other theories of the difference in homophobic reactions to
male-male rather than female-female homosexual relationships simply
have to do with a common sexual desire. A heterosexual man desires
women. For a woman to desire women is thus more understandable than
for a man to desire men, as a heterosexual man and homosexual woman
share the same desire for women, but a heterosexual man cannot
understand or identify with the attraction of one man to another
man. Similarly, homosexual men desire men, and thus for a man to
desire men is understandable to a woman who has the same
desires.
Distribution of attitudes in the UK and US
Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly
distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced
according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex,
social class, education, partisan
identification and religious status. According to UK
HIV/
AIDS charity
AVERT, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences,
religious views, and lack of interaction with gay people are
strongly associated with such views.
The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents
whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on
not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay has
also been identified by
Michael
Kimmel as an example of homophobia. The taunting of boys seen
as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is claimed to be endemic
in rural and
suburban American schools, and has
been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence
(such as a spate of
school
shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their
masculinity.
In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may
vary on the basis of partisan identification.
Republicans are far more likely than
Democrats to have negative
attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to
surveys conducted by the
National Election Studies in 2000
through 2004.
Homophobia also varies by region, statistics show that the
Southern United States has more
reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the
US.
The disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a
book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. It should be noted that the
tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively
could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or
conservatism with respect to the traditional
family.
One study
of white adolescent males conducted at the University of
Cincinnati
by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative
feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study
claims to have found that hatred of gay people,
anti-Semitism and
racism
are "likely companions", suggesting it is an abuse of power.
A study
performed in 2007 in the UK
for the charity Stonewall reports that 90 percent
of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and
lesbian people.
Social institutions can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such
institutional sources in the
black
community include:
Sources of homophobia in the white community include:
- Pastor
John Hagee said in 2006, "I believe that
New
Orleans
had a level of sin that was
offensive to God, and they were recipients of the judgment of God
for that. The newspaper carried the story in our local area,
that was not carried nationally, that there was to be a homosexual parade there on the Monday that
the Katrina came." This view was
echoed by Fred Phelps and the Westboro Baptist Church, who promote
the view that virtually all wars and natural disasters affecting
America are God's punishment for tolerating homosexuality. The
parade mentioned above was due to take place in the French Quarter
of New Orleans, an area which escaped the terrible effects of
Hurricane Katrina.
Professional
sports in many countries
involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans.
Examples in the United States include:
- The homophobic chants and attitudes of certain fans, for
example the labelling of one fan who frequently dances at games as
"Homo Larry", have been protested by attendees of New York Rangers games and by New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn.
- All-Star National
Basketball Association player Tim
Hardaway drew criticism after he said on the "790 the Ticket"
radio show, "Well, you know, I hate gay people. I let it be known I
don’t like gay people. I don’t like to be around gay people. I’m
homophobic. I don’t like it, it shouldn’t be in the world, in the
United States, I don’t like it.”
However, the major professional sports leagues do not advocate
homophobia, and regard the LGBT community a very important
marketing base.
Combating homophobia
An anti-homophobia protester at a
demonstration in Paris, in 2005
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as
gay pride parades and
political activism (
See gay pride). This is criticized by some as
counter-productive though, as gay pride parades showcase what could
be seen as more "extreme" sexuality: fetish-based and
gender-variant aspects of LGBT culture. One form of organized
resistance to homophobia is the
International Day Against
Homophobia (or IDAHO), first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related
activities in more than 40 countries. The four largest countries of
Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed
mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.
In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed,
controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in
hate speech,
hate
crime, and laws against
discrimination on the basis of sexual
orientation.
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and
beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld
argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool
for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious
groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the
weight associated with performing each role accordingly.
Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:
Contemporary death penalty
In 2009,
ILGA published a report based on
research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University
College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80
countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality
illegal, five carry the
death
penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of
the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored
homophobia" This happens in
Islamic states,
or in two cases regions under Islamic authority.
- Countries that carry the death penalty:
- Iran
- Mauritania
- Saudi Arabia
- Sudan
- Yemen
- Countries where death penalty applies in some areas:
In countries where homosexual activity carries the death penalty,
it is enacted under
Sharia Law; under
which
Islam forbids
homosexuality, and it is treated as a crime in most
Islamic countries. All major Islamic sects
disapprove of homosexuality.
Homosexuality carried the death penalty in
Afghanistan
under the Taliban.
The legal
situation in the United Arab Emirates
is unclear. In Saudi Arabia, the maximum
punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the
government will use other punishments - e.g., fines, jail time, and
whipping - as alternatives, unless it feels
that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state
authority by engaging in
LGBT
social movements. Since the 1979
Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian
government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with
homosexual acts. In Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban,
homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished
with fines and prison sentence.
Most international
human rights
organizations, such as
Human Rights
Watch and
Amnesty
International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations
between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the
United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled
that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the
Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the
International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the
Roman Catholic Church issued a
statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties
against [homosexual persons]."
In 2001,
Al-Muhajiroun, an
international organization seeking the establishment of a global
Islamic
caliphate, issued a
fatwa declaring that all members of
The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which
advances the cause of
gay,
lesbian, and
transgender
Muslims) were
murtadd, or
apostates,
and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and coming from
conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still
prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while
continuing a tradition of secrecy.
See also: Mahmoud
Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, Arsham
Parsi, Irshad Manji
See also
References
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Final edition- "Homophobia in Europe" at "A" point
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- and
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George Yancey, Assistant Professor
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[2]
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http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/
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Homophobia"
- Black Churches' Attitudes Toward Gay Parishioners Is
Discussed at Conference - New York Times
- "Obama takes on the black community's
homophobia"
- black gay christian church and homosexuality OPERATION:
REBIRTH
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acceptable" [3]
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"allies," but has yet to report comments by McCain endorsers"
[4]
- When Tradition and Taunts Collide: Gay Hockey Fans
Criticize Garden - New York Times
- "Love and Basketball: Homophobia in
Sports"
- Homophobia in professional sports -
Features]
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- " Towards an international Day against
Homophobia", April 10, 2004
- " 1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be
Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17", May 12, 2005
- "
- ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia
(2009)
- ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for
same-sex acts
- Homosexuality and Islam - ReligionFacts
- ILGA: Lesbian and Gay Rights in the World (2009)
- STATEMENT OF THE HOLY SEE DELEGATION AT THE 63rd
SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE UNITED NATIONS ON THE
DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY
(18 DECEMBER 2008)
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