Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically
trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face
to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of
combat in wars. As the oldest branch of
combat arms they are the backbone of armies.
Infantry units have more physically demanding training than other
branches of armies, and place a greater emphasis on discipline,
fitness, physical strength and aggression.
Infantrymen are distinguished from soldiers trained to fight on
horseback, in tanks, or in technical roles such as
armourers or
signallers,
but basic infantry skills are fundamental to the training of any
soldier, and soldiers of any branch of an army are expected to
serve as auxiliary infantry (e.g., patrolling and security) when
necessary. Infantry can access and maneuver in terrain inaccessible
to vehicles and tanks, and employ
infantry support weapons that can
provide firepower in the absence of artillery.
Since the end of the
Second World
War the infantry has become a smaller part of armies of the
Western world, constituting typically
between 10% and 30% of an army's personnel. Despite still often
representing the largest individual arm, with the exception of
logistics, this is vastly reduced from pre-war levels. In the
United States Army, for instance, there are only approximately
49,000 infantrymen out of about 450,000 active duty enlisted
personnel.
This reflects the greatly increased requirement for technical and
logistical specialists in Western armies, resulting from the
increasing complexity of
military technology and
equipment and an increased recognition of the importance of
logistics in warfare. In armies of
developing world nations, infantry still
accounts for a majority of soldiers, but they are often lacking
adequate training in infantry tactics and resources to be as
effective as other infantry.
History
Although the term
infantry dates from the 15th century,
the foot troops of the previous eras in history who fought with a
variety of weapons before the introduction of the
firearms are also referred to as infantry. During
the Ancient and Middle Ages Infantry were categorized by the types
of
weapons and
armour
they used, such as
heavy,
medium, and
light
infantry. Since the introduction of firearms classifications
have changed initially to reflect their formations on the
battlefield as
line infantry, and
later to reflect modes of transport and type of tactics used by
specific units as
Mechanized
infantry or
airborne
infantry.
The word
infantry was borrowed into other
Romance languages from the
Latin infantem, originally "a youth"
who as an
infante "foot soldier" served in groups composed
of those who were too inexperienced or low in
rank for
cavalry. As a
meaning for an
organised type
of
combat troops the word dates to 1579 in
the French
infantrie and Spanish
infanteria.
However, in
military history it has
become a common English term to apply to troops from earlier
historical
periods.
With the notable exception of the
Mongol Empire,
infantry has represented the largest component in most armies of
the past, and the present. While the specific
weapons have varied, the common factor is that these
soldiers have relied on their feet for
tactical movements, but since the
introduction of the
rail and motor
transport have been
operationally transported behind the
front-lines, and have made use of strategic
airlift with the introduction of aircraft into
warfare.
During the
Ancient history, infantry
were essentially armed mobs, fighting in loosely organized opposing
lines, under the vocal direction of individual
commanders in the immediate vicinity of the
troops' hearing range. However, the benefits of uniform equipment,
weaponry and above all training led to the development of
formations able to carry out pre-arranged tactical maneuvers in the
heat of battle.
Since that time infantry organization has focused on finding a
balance between heavily-armed formations that emphasise fire-power
and ability to withstand direct assaults, and more lightly-armed
but also more mobile units able to manoeuvre around the battlefield
faster, to exploit tactical opportunities. Mobility, armament, and
protection have been the three competing primary factors that
complement and compete in the balanced approach to development of
infantry doctrine throughout history.
Classical period
Infantry was the primary combat arm of the
Classical period. Examples of infantry
units of the period are the
Immortal of
Persian Empire, the
hoplites of
ancient
Greece and the
legions of
Imperial Rome and
Auxiliaries troops. In contrast
to the strictly organized immortals, phalanxes and legions, most
armies of the ancient world also employed units of
irregulars (often
mercenaries) who wore less armor and fought in
more open formations usually as
skirmishers.
As the
Decline of the Roman
Empire occurred, the huge swathe of lands under their sway
became the territory of
Germanic
tribes such as the
Vandals,
Goths, and
Visigoths in the
5th century AD. The political and military resources necessary for
the maintenance of such rigid-formation units largely disappeared
until the
later Middle Ages.
Middle Ages
For most of the
Middle Ages,
warfare and society were dominated by the
cavalry (
horse-mounted
soldiers), composed of individual
knights.
Knights were generally drawn from the
aristocracy, while the infantry levies were
raised from
commoners. This situation
slowed the advance of
infantry
tactics and weapon technologies; those that were developed by
the end of the Middle Ages included the use of long
spears or
halberds to counter
the long reach of knights'
lances, and the
increased use of ranged weaponry to counter the cavalry's
advantages of momentum, speed, height, and reach. However, from
1350 onwards the
knights themselves usually
dismounted for battle, becoming super-heavy infantry themselves, as
a countermeasure to development of massed
archery tactics which would bring their horses down.
This led to development of
combined
arms tactics of archery and dismounted knights.
Early modern period
While bows remained in use long after the development of
firearms, technological fine-tuning along with the
development of the
wheel-lock allowed
firearms to supersede even the feared
English longbow as the ranged weapon of
choice for infantry during the
early
modern period. The bow also declined in favor because of the
ease with which
musketeers could be
trained (days or weeks to attain moderate proficiency, as opposed
to many years for the longbow).
After the
Spanish Tercios,
many other nations combined firearms with extremely long
pikes into units that were virtually
invincible against cavalry formations. Eventually, with the
development of the
bayonet, the pikemen were
dropped from the formation, resulting in the first examples of an
infantry unit as recognizable today.
Modern era
Before the development of
railroads in the
19th century, infantry armies got to the battlefield by walking, or
sometimes by
ship.
The Republic of
Venice
set up the "Fanti da mar," the first corps of
troops specifically trained for fighting from ships, in the 15th
century or possibly even before; the oldest still-existing Marine
corps in the world was established in the 16th century by the
Spanish (Infanteria de Marina),
followed in the 17th century by other European countries including
the United Kingdom. Because of Britain's island status, a
large army was unnecessary, however infantry soldiers were still
required for eventual landings. A typical Royal Navy warship
carried 600 men. Of these men, 120-180 would be
Royal Marines. These men usually had a deck to
themselves and had little to do with sailing the vessel. The men
were proficient in the use of metal-working, gunpowder and modern
weapons of the day and would form landing parties when exploring.
The Marines also defended the vessel if boarded and would repair
damaged weapons and cannons after a battle.
In the mid-1800's -- up to and through the
American Civil War-- the United States
made extensive use of infrantry both in battle, as well as part of
opening the
western frontier to
settlement. The
Buffalo Soldiers
were an example of the use of both infantry and
cavalry during the period immediately following that
war and well beyond.In the 1890s and later, some countries, such as
Italy with their
Bersaglieri, used
bicycle infantry, but the real
revolution in mobility started in the 1920s with the use of motor
vehicles, resulting in
motorized
infantry. Action in
World War II
demonstrated the importance of protecting the soldiers while they
are moving around, resulting in the development of
mechanized infantry, who use armored
vehicles for transport. World War II also saw the first widespread
use of
paratroopers. These were soldiers
that parachuted from airplanes into combat, and they played key
roles in several campaigns in the European theater.
Post modern period
In the post-modern period typified by the
Vietnam conflict, infantry have often depended
on technology other than its own feet for delivery into battle. One
such example is the
United States
Army's pioneering use of
helicopters
to deliver infantry quickly between key locations on the
battlefield. Formations such as those now form a part of many
armed forces and are referred to as
airmobile infantry, and delivering
infantry into battle on helicopters is known as an
air assault.
Most other present day infantry is either motorised or mechanised,
supported by
armored fighting
vehicles,
artillery, and
aircraft, but along with
light infantry which does not use armored
fighting vehicles, is still the only kind of military force that
can take and hold some terrain types (such as urban or other close
terrain), and thus remains essential to fighting wars. However, the
tactic of having massive formations of infantry on open terrain
fight it out has fallen into disuse in Western armies ever since
World War II. This is mainly because of
advanced technology which can support, replace, and exceed the
capabilities of infantry. Modern military doctrine supported by
political influence has also kept the practice of
total war, and minimising large scale combat
casualties.
Organization
.jpg/180px-9_Div_Tobruk(AWM_020779).jpg)
Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya
in 1941.
Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations to be
employed in battle. These have been developed over time, but remain
a key element to effective infantry development and deployment. Up
into the 20th century, infantry units were for the most part
employed in closely organized formations up until the actual moment
of contact with the enemy. This was necessary to allow commanders
to retain control of the unit, especially while maneuvering, as
well as allowing officers to retain discipline amongst the
ranks.
With the development of weapons with increased firepower, it became
necessary to disperse soldiers in infantry units to make them less
susceptible to high explosive and rapid fire weapons. From World
War I, it was recognized that infantry were most successfully
employed when using their ability to maneuver in constricted
terrain and evade detection in ways not possible for other weapons
such as vehicles. This decentralization of command was made
possible by improved communications equipment and greater focus on
small unit training.
Doctrine
Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces
contribute to
campaign, major
operations,
battles, and
engagements.
It is a guide to action, not hard and fast rules.Doctrine provides
a common frame of reference across the military forces allowing the
infantry to function cooperatively in what is now called
combined arms operations. Doctrine helps
standardize operations, facilitating readiness by establishing
common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory,
history, experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster
initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical combat
environment.
Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body of
statements on how infantry forces conduct operations and provides a
common lexicon for use by infantry planners and leaders.Until
development of effective artillery doctrines, and more recently
precision guided air delivered ordnance, the most important role of
the infantry has been as the primary force of inflicting casualties
on the enemy through aimed fire. The infantry is also the only
combat Arm which can ultimately decide whether any given tactical
position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry that
assures control of terrain. While the tactics of employment in
battle have changed, the basic missions of the infantry have
not.
Operations
Attack operations are the most basic role of the
infantry, and along with defense, form the two primary stances of
the infantry on the battlefield. Traditionally, in an open battle,
or
meeting engagement, two armies
would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their
infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one or both
would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy force. The goal of an
attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective
and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the
objective. Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them
because of the high number of casualties suffered while advancing
under enemy fire (
mechanized
infantry are considered in assaulting positions in contrast to
light infantry because of armoured protection and high mobility).
Successful attacks rely on sufficient force, preparative
reconnaissance and bombardment, and retention of unit cohesion
throughout the attack. A subcategory of attacks is the
ambush, where infantry lie
in wait for enemy forces before attacking at the most vulnerable
moment.
Defense
operations are the natural counter to attacks, in which the mission
is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to
dislodge the defender. Defensive posture offers many advantages to
the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed
fortifications to advantage and the reduced exposure to enemy fire
compared with advancing forces. Effective defense relies on
minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's cohesion
before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration
of defensive positions.
Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full
scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are
constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about
in areas of possible enemy activity to discern enemy deployments
and ambush enemy patrols. Patrols are used not only on the
front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or
insurgencies are possible.
Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of
pursuit operations is the destruction of enemy forces which are not
capable of effectively engaging friendly units before they can
build their strength to the point where they are effective.
Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these
units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy
forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where
faster forces, such as armored vehicles are incapable of going or
would be exposed to ambush.
Escort consists of protecting other units from
ambush, particularly from other infantry. This is one of the most
important roles for the modern infantry, in particular when
operating along side armored vehicles. In this capacity, infantry
essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring terrain which may
hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and
identifying enemy strong points for attack by the heavier
units.
Maneuver operations
consume much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat
units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often
must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their
cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness
when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have
relied on their own legs for mobility, but mechanised or armoured
infantry often uses trucks and armored vehicles for transport,
leaving the light infantry to jobs which they cannot access.
Reconnaissance/intelligence
gathering Surveillance operations are often carried
out with the employment of small recon units or sniper teams which
gather information about the enemies Size, Activity, Location,
Unit, Time, Equipment (SALUTE report). These infantry units
typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for
periods of time within close proximity of the enemy without being
detected. They may engage high profile targets or be employed to
hunt down terrorist cells and insurgents within a given area. These
units may also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit thus
disclosing their location to be destroyed by larger combat assault
forces.
Reserve
assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front,
although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in
case of enemy infiltration. This is usually the best time for
infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain
equipment. Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general
readiness should improve. However, the unit must be ready for
deployment at any point.
Construction can be
undertaken either in reserve or on the front, but consists of using
infantry troops as labor for construction of field positions,
roads, bridges, airfields, and all other manner of structures. The
infantry is often given this assignment because of the physical
quantity of men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's
morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness and
perform other missions. More often, such jobs are given to
specialist engineering corps.
Base defense is where infantry units are tasked to
protect certain areas like command posts or airbases. Units
assigned to this job usually have a large amount of military police
attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons.
Raid/Hostage Rescue
Infantry units are trained to quickly mobilize, infiltrate, enter
and neutralize threat forces when appropriate combat intelligence
indicates.
Daily life
Because of the very nature of the "work" with firearms, explosives,
physical-emotional stress, and genuine violence, casualties and or
deaths are not uncommon in both war and in peace. The infantryman
is expected and trained to continue on with the mission despite
personal fear, despair, fatigue and injury. These are exemplified
in the United States Army by an excerpt from the infantryman's
creed
In the race for victory, I am swift, determined, and
courageous; Armed with a fierce will to win. Never will I fail my
country's trust. Always I fight on: through the foe, to the
objective, to triumph over all. If necessary, I fight to my
death.
United States Army Rangers, a specialised light infantry, have
their own
Ranger Creed that demands
faithful service from the infantryman even "...though I be the lone
survivor."
Life in an active duty infantry unit is rigorous, a 24 hour
cycle makes for long hours of exercise/training/fighting/patrolling
in often brutal climates armed only with the weapons, ammunition
and essential war fighting equipment that they can carry on their
backs. Little or no room is afforded for comforts, remaining space
is meant for rations. Infantry are usually afforded upwards of 4000
calories per day when on operations. Accompanying this may be
strict water discipline, where water resupply may only be once
every few days and infantrymen will have to ration water
consumption to two or three litres of water a day, resulting in an
almost continuous state of
dehydration.
The physical demands are extreme. Forced marches, carrying in
excess of 80 lbs (36 kg) of equipment upwards of 25 miles
(40 km) at a 4-6 mi/h (6–10 km/h) pace is not
uncommon. 15 mile runs at a forced pace are very common as well.
Teamwork and trust are essential for the survival of not only the
individual, but the unit as a whole.
Equipment
The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with the
development of military technology in general, but certain
constants remain regarding the design and selection of this
equipment. Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective
gear, survival gear, and special equipment.
Infantry weapons have included all
types of personal weapons, i.e., anything that can be handled by
individual soldiers, as well as some small crew-served weapons that
can be carried. During operations, especially in modern times,
infantry often scavenge and employ whatever weapons they can
acquire in addition to those given them by their supply
chain.
Infantry from ancient times up until the modern age have wielded a
wide array of weaponry. Infantry used all sorts of
melee weapons, such as various types
swords,
axes, and
maces, as well as ranged weapons such as
javelins,
bows,
and
slings. Infantry of these periods also
often wore varying types of armor, including
chain mail and
Cuirasses.
Many of their weapons evolved over time to counter advances made in
armor, such as the
falchion, whose heavy
blade was designed to break chain mail armor.
Modern infantry weaponry include
rifles,
sub machine guns,
machine guns, shoulder-fired
rocket launchers and
missiles, and lighter
mortars and
grenade launchers. Modern infantry are
often equipped with helmets, a
gas mask,
and in some cases, additional body armor.
Protective equipment and survival gear
Infantry protective gear includes all equipment designed to protect
the soldier against enemy attack. Most protective gear comprises
personal armor of some type.
Classical and medieval infantry employed leather and metal armor as
defense against both ranged and melee attacks, but with the advent
of firearms, such armor could no longer defeat attacks and was
discarded. The return to use of the helmet was prompted by the need
to defend against high explosive
fragmentation, and further
developments in materials led to effective bullet-defeating armor
within the weight acceptable for infantry use. The use of body
armor is again becoming widespread amongst infantry units,
primarily using
Kevlar technology. Infantry
must also often carry protective measures against chemical and
biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and
protective suits.
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require
for day-to-day survival in the combat environment. These include
basic environmental protections, medical supplies, food, and
sundries. Traditionally, infantry have suffered large casualty
rates from disease, exposure, and privation—often in excess of
those suffered from enemy attacks. Better equipment of troops in
this area greatly reduce this rate of loss. One of the most
valuable pieces of gear is the
entrenching tool--basically a small
shovel—which can be employed not only to dig important defenses,
but also in a variety of other daily tasks and even as an effective
weapon.
Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which may or
may not be carried depending on the mission and the level of
equipment of an army. Communications gear has become a necessity,
as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater
distances. In some units, individual communications are being used
to allow the greatest level of flexibility. Engineering equipment,
including demolitions, mines, and other gear, is also commonly
carried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of other
gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the particular
terrain in which the unit is employed, can be carried by infantry
units.
Historical descriptions
- "Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles and all
wars are won in the end by the infantryman. Secondly, the
infantryman always bears the brunt. His casualties are heavier, he
suffers greater extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other
arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman is less stereotyped and
far harder to acquire in modern war than that of any other arm."
Field Marshal Earl Wavell
- "I love the infantry because they are the underdogs. They are
the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they
even learn to live without the necessities. And in the end they are
the guys that wars can't be won without." Ernie Pyle
- "I'm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which
gives more and gets less than anybody else." Bill Mauldin, Up Front (1945)
- "Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how
justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry and ask the
dead."-Hemingway
- "The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm [of the
military] where the weapon is the man himself." C.T. Shortis
- "Ah, yes, mere infantry — poor beggars…" Plautus
- "The army's infantry is its most essential component. Even
today, no army can take and hold any ground without the use of
infantry." George Nafziger
- "The infantry is there so that when some die the generals know
where to direct the artillery fire" (anonymous Japanese soldier,
Iwo Jima)
- '"Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can
occupy" - a Finnish Army observation of
the Operation Allied Force in
the 1990s
- '"We are the boys who will go to a particular place, at H-hour,
occupy a designated terrain, stand on it, dig the enemy out of
their holes, force them then and there to surrender or die. We're
the bloody infantry, the doughboy, the duckfoot, the foot soldier
who goes where the enemy is and takes them on in person. We've been
doing it, with changes in weapons but very little change in our
trade, at least since the time five thousand years ago when the
foot sloggers of Sargon the Great forced the Sumerians to cry
"Uncle!" - Robert A. Heinlein
- “I don’t know what effect these men will have upon the enemy,
but, by God, they terrify me.” - the Duke of Wellington
- "Victory is still measured by foot" - The Indian Army
See also
Citations and notes
- Careers & Jobs: Infantryman (11B) at
GoArmy.com
- Active Duty Military Personnel by Rank/Grade September 30,
2009 DOD
- "infantry" at Online Etymology Dictionary
- pp.59, 71, English & Gudmundsson
- Click to view the full text
- In Praise of Infantry, by Field Marshal Earl Wavell, first
published in "The Times," Thursday, 19th April 1945
- p.257, Tobin
- p.5, Mauldin & Ambrose
- p.262, Trogdon
- This was misquoted in We were Soldiers Once...And Young: Ia
Drang--The Battle That Changed The War In Vietnam, by Harold
G. Moore and Joseph L. Galloway, Random House, 1 ed., 1992
- The New York Times, Shortis
- p.156, Heinl
- p.13, Nafziger
References
- English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On Infantry,
(Revised edition), The Military Profession series, Praeger
Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0-275-94972-9
- The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945
In Praise of Infantry
- Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewitness to
World War II, Free Press, 1997
- Mauldin, Bill, Ambrose, Stephen E., Up Front, W. W.
Norton, 2000
- Trogdon, Robert W., Ernest Hemingway: A Literary
Reference, Da Capo Press, 2002
- The New York Times, Maj Gen C T Shortis, British
Director of Infantry, 4 February 1985
- Heinl, Robert Debs, Dictionary of Military and Naval
Quotations, Plautus in The Braggart Captain (3rd
century CE), Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1978
- Nafziger, George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia,
Presidio Press, 1998
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