Jammu and Kashmir (Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर; ) is the northernmost
state of India
.
It is
situated mostly in the Himalayan
mountains. Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with the
states of Himachal
Pradesh
and Punjab
to the south
and internationally with the People's Republic of China
to the north and east and the Pakistani
administered territories of Azad Kashmir
and Gilgit-Baltistan
, to the west and northwest respectively.
Formerly a part of the
erstwhile
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, this
territory is disputed among China, India
and Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir is referred to in Pakistan as
Indian-occupied Kashmir.
Jammu and
Kashmir consists of three regions: Jammu, the
Kashmir valley and Ladakh
.
Srinagar
is the summer capital, and Jammu, its winter
capital. While the Kashmir valley, often known as
Paradise on Earth, is famous for its beautiful mountainous
landscape, Jammu's numerous
shrines attracts
tens of thousands of
Hindu and
Muslim pilgrims every year. Ladakh, also known as
"Little
Tibet", is renowned for its remote
mountain beauty and
Buddhist culture.
.
History
The area known as Jammu and Kashmir came into existence when the
Mughal Emperor
Akbar invaded Kashmir in
1586, led
by his general
Bhagwant Das and his
aide
Ramchandra I. The Mughal army
defeated the
Turk ruler
Yusuf Khan of Kashmir. After the battle, Akbar
appointed Ramchandra I as the governor of the Himalayan kingdom.
Ramchandra
I founded the city of Jammu
, named after
the Hindu goddess Jamwa Mata, south of the Pir Panjal
range
.
In
1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, a descendant of Ramchandra I, Jammu
and Kashmir was captured by the Sikhs under Ranjit
Singh of Lahore
and
afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to
the Sikh power. Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15.
1908. "Kashmir: History." page 94-95. Ranjit Deo's
grandnephew,
Gulab
Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit
Singh, distinguished himself in later wars, and was appointed as
the Governor or Raja of Jammu in 1820.
With the help of his
able officer, Zorawar Singh,
Gulab Singh soon captured Ladakh and Baltistan, regions to the east and north-east of
Kashmir.
In 1845, the
First Anglo-Sikh
War broke out, and Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof
till the
battle of Sobraon (1846),
when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of
Sir
Henry Lawrence. Two
treaties were concluded. In the first, the State of Lahore
(
i.e. West Punjab) was
handed over to the British, for an equivalent amount to one
crore rupees of
indemnity, the hill countries between the Beas River and the Indus River
; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh
for 75 lakhs rupees all the hilly or
mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus River and
west of the Ravi
River
" (i.e., the Vale of Kashmir
). Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his
son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates
of Hunza, Gilgit
and Nagar to the kingdom.
Ranbir Singh's grandson
Hari Singh had
ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925 and was the reigning monarch
at the conclusion of British rule in the subcontinent in 1947. As a
part of the
partition process,
both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would
be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or — in
special cases — to remain independent. In 1947, Kashmir's
population was 77% Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan.
On October 20, 1947, tribesmen backed by Pakistan invaded Kashmir.
The Maharaja initially fought back but on 27 October appealed for
assistance to the
Governor-General Louis Mountbatten, who agreed on the
condition that the ruler accede to India. Once the papers of
accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir
with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not
allowed to expel anyone from the state. India took the matter to
the United Nations. The UN resolution asked Pakistan to vacate the
areas it has occupied and asked India to assist the U.N. Plebiscite
Commission to organize a plebiscite to determine the will of the
people. Pakistan refused to vacate the occupied areas.
Diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan soured for many
other reasons, and eventually resulted in three further wars in
Kashmir the
Indo-Pakistani
War of 1965, the
Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 and the
Kargil War in 1999.
India has control of
60 percent of the area of the former princely state of Jammu and
Kashmir; Pakistan controls 30 percent of the region, known as
Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad
Kashmir. China has since occupied 10 percent of the
state in 1962.
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has
also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and
early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed
between Great Britain, Tibet, Afghanistan and Russia over the
northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements,
and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist
takeover in 1949.
By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had
entered the north-east portion of Ladakh:Kashmir. (2007). In
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. By 1956–57 they had
completed a military road through the Aksai Chin
area to provide better communication between
Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road
led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in
the Sino-Indian war of October 1962. China has occupied Aksai Chin
since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the
Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by
Pakistan to China in 1963.
For intermittent periods between 1957, when the state approved its
own Constitution, to the death of
Sheikh
Abdullah in 1982, the state had alternating spells of stability
and discontent.
In the late 1980s however, simmering
discontent over the high-handed policies of the Union Government
and allegations of the rigging of the 1987 assembly elections
triggered a violent uprising which was backed by Pakistan. Since then, the region has seen a
prolonged, bloody conflict between militants and the
Indian Army. Both the militants and the army
have been accused of widespread human rights abuses, including
abductions, massacres, rape and looting. However, militancy in the
state has been on the decline since 1996, and the situation has
become increasingly peaceful in recent years.
See also
Kashmir conflict
Geography and climate
Nageen Lake
Jammu and
Kashmir is home to several valleys such as
the Kashmir
Valley
, Tawi Valley, Chenab Valley, Poonch
Valley, Sind Valley and Lidder Valley. The main Kashmir valley
is wide and in area.
The Himalayas divide the Kashmir valley from Ladakh while the
Pir
Panjal
range, which encloses the valley from the west and
the south, separates it from the Great Plains of northern
India. Along the northeastern flank of the Valley runs the
main range of the Himalayas. This densely settled and beautiful
valley has an average height of above sea-level but the surrounding
Pir Panjal range has an average elevation of .
The
Jhelum
River
is the only major Himalayan river which flows
through the Kashmir valley. The Indus, Tawi, Ravi and Chenab
are the major rivers flowing through the
state. Jammu and Kashmir is home to several Himalayan
glaciers.
With an average altitude of above sea-level,
the Siachen
Glacier
is long making it the longest Himalayan
glacier.
The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies greatly owing to its rugged
topography. In the south around Jammu, the climate is typically
monsoonal, though the region is sufficiently far west to average 40
to 50 mm (1.6 to 2 inches) of rain per months between
January and March. In the hot season, Jammu city is very hot and
can reach up to 40 °C (104 °F) whilst in July and August, very
heavy though erratic rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to
650 millimetres (25.5 inches). In September, rainfall
declines, and by October conditions are hot but extremely dry, with
minimal rainfall and temperatures of around 29 °C (84 °F).
Across from the Pir Panjal range, the South Asian monsoon is no
longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from
southwest cloudbands.
Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea
, Srinagar receives as much as 25 inches (635
millimetres) of rain from this source, with the wettest months
being March to May with around 85 millimetres (3.3 inches) per
month. Across from the main Himalaya Range, even
the southwest cloudbands break up and the climate of Ladakh and Zanskar is extremely dry and cold. Annual
precipitation is only around 100 mm (4 inches) per year
and humidity is very low. This region, almost all above 3,000
metres (9,750 ft) above sea level and winters are extremely
cold. In Zanskar, the average January temperature is -20 °C (-4 °F)
with extremes as low as -40 °C (-40 °F). All the rivers freeze over
and locals actually do river crossings during this period because
their high levels from glacier melt in summer inhibits crossing. In
summer in Ladakh and Zanskar, days are typically a warm 20 °C (68
°F) but with the low humidity and thin air nights can still be
cold.
Divisions
Jammu and
Kashmir consists of three divisions: Jammu, Kashmir Valley and
Ladakh, and is further divided into 22 districts: The Siachen
Glacier, although under Indian military control, does not
lie under the administration of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir. Kishtwar,
Ramban, Reasi
, Samba, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam and Shopian are newly formed
districts.
Demographics
Jammu and Kashmir is the only state in India that has a
Muslim majority population. Though
Islam is practiced by about 67% of the population of
the state and by 97% of the population of the Kashmir valley, the
state has large and vibrant communities of
Buddhists,
Hindus (inclusive
of
Megh bhagat) and
Sikhs. In
Jammu, Hindus constitute
65% of the population and Muslims 31% and Sikhs, 4%; In Ladakh,
Buddhists constitute about 46% of the population, the remaining
being Muslims.
The people of Ladakh are of Indo-Tibetan origin, while the southern area of
Jammu includes many communities tracing their ancestry to the
nearby Indian states of Haryana
and Punjab
, as well as
the city of Delhi
. In
totality, the Muslims constitute 67% of the population, the Hindus
about 30%, the Buddhists 1%, and the Sikhs 2% of the
population.
According to political scientist
Alexander Evans, approximately 95% of the
total population of 160,000-170,000 of Kashmiri
Brahmins, also called
Kashmiri Pandits, (
i.e.
approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990
as militancy engulfed the state. According to an estimate by the
Central Intelligence
Agency, about 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the entire state of
Jammu and Kashmir have been
internally displaced due to the
ongoing violence.
| Division |
Population |
% Muslim |
% Hindu |
% Sikh |
% Buddhist/Other |
| Kashmir (53.9%) |
5,476,970 |
97.16% |
1.84% |
0.88% |
0.11% |
| Jammu (43.7%) |
4,430,191 |
30.69% |
65.23% |
3.57% |
0.51% |
| Ladakh (2.3%) |
236,539 |
47.40% Shia |
6.22% |
– |
45.87% |
| Jammu & Kashmir |
10,143,700 |
66.97% |
29.63% |
2.03% |
1.36% |
Statistics calculated from the 2001 Census India District Profiles
An estimated 50-100,000 Kashmiri Muslims and 150-300,000 Kashmiri
Pandits have been internally
displaced due to militancy. |
In Jammu
and Kashmir, the principal spoken languages are Kashmiri, Urdu, Dogri, Pahari, Balti, Ladakhi, Punjabi, Gojri and
Dadri
, Kishtwari. However,
Urdu written in the Persian script is the official
language of the state. Many speakers of these languages use
Hindi or
English as a second language.
Politics and government
A soldier guards the roadside
checkpoint outside Srinagar International Airport.
Jammu and Kashmir is the only state in India which enjoys special
autonomy under
Article 370 of the Constitution of India
according to which, no law enacted by the
Parliament of India, except for those in
the field of defence, communication and foreign policy, will be
extendable in Jammu and Kashmir unless it is ratified by the state
legislature of Jammu and Kashmir.
Subsequently, jurisdiction of the
Supreme
Court of India
over Jammu and Kashmir has been extended.
Jammu and Kashmir is also the only Indian state that has its own
flag and constitution, and Indians from other states cannot
purchase land or
property in the
state. Designed by the then ruling National Conference, the flag of
Jammu and Kashmir features a
plough on a red
background symbolizing labour substituted the Maharaja's state
flag. The three stripes represent the three distinct administrative
divisions of the state, namely Jammu, Valley of Kashmir, and
Ladakh.
Since 1990, the
Armed Forces Act,
which gives special powers to the Indian security forces, has been
enforced in Jammu and Kashmir. The decision to evoke this act was
criticized by the
Human Rights
Watch.
Like all the states of India, Jammu and Kashmir has a multi-party
democratic system of governance with a bicameral legislature. At
the time of drafting of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, 100
seats were earmarked for direct elections from territorial
constituencies. Of these, 25 seats were reserved for the areas of
Jammu and Kashmir State that came under Pakistani occupation, which
came down to 24 after the 12th amendment of the Constitution of
Jammu and Kashmir:
After a
delimitation in 1988, the total
number of seats increased to 111, of which 87 were within Indian
administered territory. The Jammu & Kashmir Assembly is the
only state in India to have a 6 year as against the norm of a 5
year term followed in every other state's Assembly. There was
indication from the previous INC Government to bring parity with
the other states, but this does not seem to have received the
required support to pass into law.
Influential political parties include the
Jammu & Kashmir
National Conference (NC), the
Indian National Congress (INC), the
Jammu and
Kashmir People's Democratic Party (PDP), the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and
other smaller regional parties. After dominating Kashmir's politics
for years, National Conference's influence waned in 2002, when INC
and PDP formed a political alliance and rose to power. Under the
power sharing agreement, INC leader
Ghulam Nabi Azad replaced PDP's
Mufti Mohammad Sayeed as the
Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir in late
2005. However, in 2008, PDP withdrew its support from the
government on the issue of temporary diversion of nearly of land to
Sri Amarnath Shrine Board. In the
2008 Kashmir Elections that were held
from November 17 to December 24, the
National Conference
party and the
Congress
party together won enough seats in the state assembly to form a
ruling alliance.
Some Kashmiris, especially those residing in Kashmir valley, demand
greater autonomy, sovereignty and even independence from India. Due
to the economic integration of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of
India, separatist movements across Kashmir valley were on a
decline. However, following the
unrest in 2008, which included more than
500,000 protesters at a rally on August 18, secessionist movements
gained a boost.
Economy
Jammu and Kashmir's economy is predominantly dependent on
agriculture and allied activities. The Kashmir valley is also known
for its
sericulture and
cold water fisheries.
Wood from
Kashmir is used to make high-quality
cricket
bats, popularly known as
Kashmir Willow. Kashmiri
saffron is also very famous and brings the state a
handsome amount of foreign exchange. Agricultural exports from
Jammu and Kashmir include apples, barley, cherries, corn, millet,
oranges, rice, peaches, pears, saffron, sorghum, vegetables, and
wheat, while manufactured exports include handicrafts, rugs, and
shawls.
Horticulture plays a vital role in the
economic development of the state. With an annual turnover of over
Rs. 300 crore, apart from foreign exchange of over Rs. 80 crore,
this sector is the next biggest source of income in the state’s
economy. The region of Kashmir is known for its horticulture
industry and is the wealthiest region in the state. Horticultural
produce from the state includes apples, apricots, cherries, pears,
plums, almonds and walnuts.
The
Doda
district has deposits of high-grade sapphire. Though small, the manufacturing
and services sector is growing rapidly, especially in the Jammu
division. In recent years, several
consumer goods companies have opened
manufacturing units in the region. The
Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of
India has identified several industrial sectors which can
attract investment in the state, and accordingly, it is working
with the union and the state government to set up industrial parks
and
special economic zones.
In the fiscal year 2005–06, exports from the state amounted to Rs.
1,150 crore. However, industrial development in the state faces
several major constraints including extreme mountainous landscape
and power shortage.
The government has spent a lot of
money in order to boost foreign direct investment.
Seen here is a multi billion dollar rail link, 2nd highest in
the world.
The
Government of India has been
keen to economically integrate Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of
India. The state is one of the largest recipients of grants from
New Delhi, totaling $ 812 million per year. It also has a mere 4%
incidence of poverty, one of the lowest in the country. In an
attempt to improve the infrastructure in the state, the Indian
government has commenced work on the ambitious
Kashmir Railway project which is being
constructed by
Konkan Railway
Corporation and
IRCON at a cost of more
than US$2.5 billion. The
Jammu
& Kashmir Bank, which is listed as a
S&P CNX 500 conglomerate, is based in
the state. It reported a net profit of Rs. 598 million in
2008.
Before insurgency intensified in 1989,
tourism formed an important part of the Kashmiri
economy. The tourism economy in the Kashmir valley was worst hit.
However, the holy shrines of Jammu and the Buddhist monasteries of
Ladakh continue to remain popular pilgrimage and tourism
destinations.
Every year, thousands of Hindu pilgrims visit holy shrines of Vaishno Devi and Amarnath
which has had significant impact on the state's
economy. The Vaishno Devi yatra alone contributes Rs. 475
crore to the local economy annually. Tourism in the Kashmir valley
has rebounded in recent years and in 2009, the state became one of
the top tourist destinations of India.
Gulmarg
, one of the most popular ski
resort destinations in India, is also home to the world's
highest green golf course.
| Year |
Gross State Domestic Product (in million INR) |
| 1980 |
11,860 |
| 1985 |
22,560 |
| 1990 |
36,140 |
| 1995 |
80,970 |
| 2000 |
147,500 |
| 2006 |
539,850 |
Culture
Buddhism is an integral part of
Ladakh's culture.
Shown here is a statue of Buddha in a monastery in
Likir.
Ladakh is famous for its unique
Indo-
Tibetan
culture.
Chanting in
Sanskrit and
Tibetan
language forms an integral part of Ladakh's Buddhist lifestyle.
Annual masked dance festivals,
weaving and
archery are an important part of traditional
life in Ladakh. Ladakhi food has much in common with
Tibetan food, the most prominent foods
being
thukpa, noodle soup; and
tsampa, known in Ladakhi as
Ngampe, roasted
barley flour. Typical garb includes gonchas of velvet, elaborately
embroidered waistcoats and boots, and gonads or hats. People,
adorned with gold and silver ornaments and turquoise headgears
throng the streets during various Ladakhi festivals.
The
Dumhal is a famous dance in the Kashmir valley,
performed by men of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff,
another traditional folk dance. Kashmir has been noted for its fine
arts for centuries, including poetry and handicrafts.
Shikaras, traditional small wooden boats, and
houseboats are a common feature in various
lakes and rivers across the Valley. The
Constitution of India does not allow
people from regions other than Jammu and Kashmir to purchase land
in the state. As a consequence, houseboats became popular among
those who were unable to purchase land in the Valley and has now
become an integral part of the Kashmiri lifestyle.
Kawa,
traditional green tea with spices and almond, is consumed all
through the day in the chilled winter climate of Kashmir. Most of
the buildings in the Valley and Ladakh are made from softwood and
is influenced by
Indian,
Tibetan, and
Islamic architecture.
Jammu's
Dogra culture and tradition is much similar to that of neighbouring
Punjab and Himachal
Pradesh. Traditional Punjabi festivals such as
Lohri and
Vaisakhi are
celebrated with great zeal and enthusiasm throughout the region.
After Dogras,
Gujjars form the
second-largest ethnic group in Jammu. Known for their semi-nomadic
lifestyle, Gujjars are also found in large numbers in the Kashmir
valley. Similar to Gujjars,
Gaddis are primarily herdsmen
who hail from the Chamba region in Himachal Pradesh. Gaddis are
generally associated with emotive music played on the
flute. The
Bakkarwalas found both in Jammu
and the Vale of Kashmir are wholly nomadic pastoral people who move
along the Himalayan slopes in search for pastures for their huge
flocks of goats and sheep.
Education
In 1970, the state government of Jammu and Kashmir established its
own education board and university. Education in the state is
divided into primary, middle, high secondary, college and
university level. Jammu and Kashmir follows 10+2 pattern for
education of children. This is handled by
Jammu and
Kashmir State Board of School Education (abbreviated as
JKBOSE). Various private and public schools are recognized by the
board to impart education to students. Board examinations are
conducted for students in class VIII, X and XII. In addition there
are various
Kendriya Vidyalayas (run by the
Government of India) and
Indian Army schools that also impart secondary
school education. These schools follow the
Central Board of Secondary
Education pattern.
Notable higher education or research institutes in Jammu and
Kashmir include
National Institute of
Technology Srinagar, Government College of Engineering and
Technology of Jammu and the Government Medical College of Jammu.
University-level education is provided by
University of Jammu,
University of Kashmir,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
of Jammu,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
of Kashmir,
Shri
Mata Vaishno Devi University,
Islamic
University of Science & Technology, and
Baba Ghulam Shah Badhshah
University.
Notes
- Stein, Burton. 1998. A History of India. Oxford
University Press. 432 pages. ISBN 0195654463. Page 368.
- Calculated from the 2001 Census India District Profiles
- 2001 Census India: Data by Religious
Communities
- Evans, Alexander. 2002. "A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits,
1990-2001" Contemporary South Asia, 11(1):19-37.
- CIA - The World Factbook
-
http://www.amnesty.org.ru/library/Index/ENGASA010021997?open&of=ENG-BTN
- [1]
- Evans, Alexander. "A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits,
1990-2001". Contemporary South Asia 2002(11):1.
- States: Jammu & Kashmir: Repeating History:By
Harinder Baweja (July 03, 2000)India Today
- [2]
-
http://jkgad.nic.in/statutory/Rules-Costitution-of-J&K.pdf
- “(PDF) The Armed Forces (Jammu and Kashmir) Special
Powers Act, 1990” Indian Ministry of Law and Justice Published
by the Authority of New Deli
- “India: Repeal Armed Forces Special Powers Act
Human
Rights Watch retrieved September 11, 2008 ,
- Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir Section 4 Read
with Section 48(a)
- Jammu and Kashmir Assembly Elections 2002: Ending
National Conference's Reign:30 October 2002 By S.H.Imam (J&K
Insight)
- PDP withdraws support from J&K government(By Mukhtar
Ahmad in Srinagar)June 28, 2008 19:03 IST (Rediff News)
-
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/28/indian.kashmir.vote/index.html
-
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1838586,00.html
- Vaishno Devi yatra injects Rs 475 cr to Katra
economy annually(CJ: Rattan Sharma , 27 Aug 2007)
- Fairway to Heaven - WSJ.com
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