Korean architecture refers
to the built environment of
Korea
from c. 30,000 BC to the present.
Ancient architecture
In the
Paleolithic the first
inhabitants of the Korean peninsula used caves, rockshelters, and
portable shelters. The remains of a portable shelter dating to c.
30,000 BC were excavated at the Seokjang-ri site in South
Chungcheong Province. The earliest examples of
pit-house architecture
are from the
Jeulmun Pottery
Period. Early pit-houses contained basic features such as
hearths, storage pits, and space for working and sleeping.
In the
Mumun period buildings
were pit dwellings with walls of
wattle-and-daub and
thatched roof. Raised-floor architecture first
appeared in the Korean peninsula in the Middle Mumun, c. 850-550
BC.
Archaeological evidence of
ondol, the Korean floor panel heating system, was
found in the architectural remains of early
Protohistoric.
In 109
B.C.E., the Chinese
commandery
at Nangnang (Lelang) was established in the
northwest region of Korea. Official buildings of this period
were built of wood and brick and roofed with tiles having the
features of Chinese construction.
Chinese architecture strongly
influenced Korean architecture at this time, creating an
architectural basis for the development of state-level
society.
Reconstruction of the eastern stone
pagoda that was built during the Baekje Kingdom era in the Temple
Mireuksa
In the Three Kingdoms Period, some people lived in pit-houses while
others lived in raised-floor buildings.
For example, the
Hanseong Baekje settlement of Seongdong-ri in Gyeonggi Province
contained only pit-houses, while the Silla settlement of Siji-dong
in Greater
Daegu
contained only raised-floor
architecture.
Goguryeo, the largest of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea, is renowned
for its mountain fortresses built horizontally and vertically along
the incline of slopes. One of the well-preserved Goguryeo
fortresses is Baekam fortress (白巖城) constructed before 6th century
in present-day South-West Manchuria.
Baekje was founded in
18
BC and its territory included the west coast of the Korean
peninsula. After the fall of Nangnang, Baekje established
friendships with China and Japan. Great temples were built during
this time.
The earliest stone pagoda of the Mireuksa Temple
in Iksan
county is of
particular interest because it shows the transitional features from
a wooden pagoda to a stone one. Baekje assimilated diverse
influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later,
important elements of the architectural style of Baekje were
adopted by Japan.
Silla was the last of the three kingdoms to
develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Buddhist temples were built in
Silla.
One
of the well known examples of Sillan architecture is Cheomseongdae
, said to be the first stone observatory in
Asia. It was built during the reign of
Queen Seondeok (632-646). The
structure is known for its unique and elegant form.
Ancient mortuary architecture
Tomb of a Goguryeo military general
located in Jian, China.
Megaliths,
sometimes called
dolmens, are the burials of
important and prestigious persons of the Mumun Pottery Period
(1500-300 BC). They have been found in great numbers and along with
stone-cist burials, megaliths and are the main examples of mortuary
architecture in the Mumun. There are three types of megaliths: (1)
the southern type, which is low and often a simple slab with
supporting stones, (2) the northern type, which is larger and
shaped much like a table, and (3) the capstone type, which has a
capstone with no supporting stones. The distribution of the dolmens
would imply some relation to other global
megalithic cultures.
Three Kingdoms Period mortuary architecture was monumental in
scale. For example, in Goguryeo two different types of mortuary
architecture evolved during this period: one type of burial is a
stepped pyramid made of stone, while another is a large earth mound
form.
The
Cheonmachong
mounded burial is an example of the monumental
style of mortuary architecture in the ancient Silla capital at
Gyeongju
.
United Silla architecture
United Silla architecture is defined as from the 7th century to the
10th century. After the unification of the Korean peninsula into
the kingdom of United Silla, Korean institutions were radically
transformed. United Silla absorbed the fully matured culture of the
Tang dynasty in China, and at the same time
developed a unique
cultural
identity. New Buddhist sects were introduced from the T'ang and
Buddhist art flourished. It was a
period of peace and cultural advancement in all fields of the
arts.
Architecture flourished in the royal capital of Gyeongju, though
almost all traces of the former glory have vanished at the present
time. The city had nearly 200,000 inhabitants at its peak, and was
strategically located at the junction of two rivers and three
mountains that encircle a fertile basin of about 170 km² in area.
The urban area of the city was developed and expanded in three
stages. In the second stage, when
Hwangnyongsa Temple was located in the center,
the region was developed into a grid network of road patterns with
wide streets.
One of the
Palace sites is marked by the artificial
lake of Anapji
with stone
works of retaining walls delineating
the former building location. The residential district of
the nobles in the city was composed of great houses which were
constructed conforming to the
building
code that granted privileges to the nobles, but forbidden to
the commoners. Tiles from many ruins of the buildings were found
everywhere. Of those that are still intact, show elegant and
graceful design.
Buddhist architecture
The plans of Buddhist temples were characterized by two pagodas in
front of the central main hall in a symmetrical layout on the
north-south axis with other buildings.
Bulguksa Temple
, built on a stone platform at the foothill of
Mt. Toham near Gyeongju, is the oldest existing temple in
Korea. The temple was first founded early in the sixth century and
was entirely rebuilt and enlarged in 752. The original platform and
foundations have remained intact to the present, but the existing
wooden buildings were reconstructed during the Joseon
dynasty.
The stone work of the two-story platform exhibits a superb sense of
architectural organization and advanced building methods. Two stone
pagodas stand in front of the main hall of the temple. The simpler
Seokgatap located to the left of the court
represents Buddha's manifestation in a transcendent calm. It has
three stories with two pedestal layers and a total height reaching
about twenty-five feet. The pagoda consists of simple undecorated
pedestal slabs and three-story stupa each of which has five stepped
eaves and truncated roofs. These characteristics constitute a
typical form of the Korean stone pagodas.
To the right of the court, the complex
Dabotap represents Buddha's manifestation in a
diversified universe, and is unique in Korea, further so in Asia.
With a height of thirty-five feet, this pagoda has one pedestal
with a staircase on each side, four main stories with balustrade
and is characterized by the final crown-ball-and-plate sequence.
The design motif of the
lotus
flower is apparent in mouldings and other details of the
pagoda.
The rock
cave shrine of Seokguram
is located on the crest of Mt. Toham. It was
built by the same master architect of Bulguksa Temple, and built
around the same era. This cave shrine was artificially and
skillfully constructed with granite blocks and covered with an
earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape.
The shrine boasts a rectangular anteroom lined with large stone
slabs carved with the figures of the protectors of Buddhism on each
side of the walls and at the entrance passageway to the main
chamber. The circular main chamber covered by an elegant dome
ceiling and surrounded by carved stone wall panels depicting
bodhisattvas and the ten disciples. The graceful statue of Buddha
on a lotus pedestal in the center is the dominant feature of the
chamber.
Rock cave shrines are not rare in Asia, but few of these shrines
and sculptures reveal such high level of artistry. None are as
religiously and artistically complete in overall design as those at
Seokguram
Pagoda detail
Goryeo architecture
Goryeo architecture is defined as from the 10th century to the 14th
century. Much of the architecture of this time was inspired by
Buddhism, such as magnificent
Buddhist temples and the
Korean pagoda. Unfortunately, since most of
the architecture of this time was built of wood, little has
survived to the present day.
Also, the capital of Goryeo
was based in
Gaesong, in modern day North Korea, which has made this era
especially problematic to study for historians at
large.
The few
remaining wooden structures surviving from the late Goryeo period
in South
Korea
indicates significantly simpler bracketing than
those found in Joseon period architecture. Bright and soft
coloring of the structures indicate further development since the
Three Kingdoms era.
Joseon architecture
DongbukGakru in Hwaseong
Fortress
Joseon architecture is defined as from the 14th century to the 19th
century. The founding of the Joseon dynasty in 1392 brought to
power like-minded men steeped in the doctrines of
Neo-Confucianism, which had slowly
percolated into Korea from China in the 14th century. This ushered
in a new environment that was relatively hostile to Buddhism,
causing the state to gradually shift its patronage from Buddhist
temples to Confucian institutions. Throughout the early dynasty,
the impetus to reform society along Neo-Confucian lines led to the
construction of hyanggyo (local schools) in Seoul and numerous
provincial cities. Here, sons of the aristrocracy prepared for
civil service careers in an atmosphere of Confucian learning.
Although these institutions endured through the end of the dynasty,
they began to fall out of favor in the mid-16th century for a
variety of reasons. Among these, the rise in population made it the
prospects of a civil service career less likely than in earlier
years. Also, as the yangban aristocracy matured in its
understanding of Neo-Confucianism, they grew more selective in the
quality and type of instruction they favored for their sons. As a
result, private confucian academies (seowon) gradually supplanted
hyanggyos and became a staple of rural aristocratic life until the
end of the dynasty.
Neo-Confucianism inspired new architectural paradigms. Jaesil, or
clan memorial halls, became common in many villages where
extended families erected facilities for
common veneration of a distant ancestor. Jongryo, or memorial
shrines, were established by the government to commemorate
exceptional acts of filial piety or devotion. Even beyond these
archetypes, the
aesthetics of
Neo-Confucianism, which favored practicality, frugality, and
harmony with nature, forged a consistent architectural style
throughout Korean society.
Japanese occupation architecture
Japanese occupation architecture is defined as from 1910 to 1945.
During
the Japanese occupation of
Korea, there was a systematic attempt by the Empire of
Japan
to destroy native Korean architecture and replace
it with Japanese
architecture. One of the ways in which the Korean people
resisted the Japanese authorities was to build traditional Korean
homes.
The houses in Jeonju
Hanok
Village are a particularly notable example of this, erected as a
statement of national pride and remaining so today.
Important architectural sites were destroyed, often by burning.
Significant elements of
landscaping,
such as
Korean gardens, were razed,
with important artistic pieces sold or taken to Japan, even to the
extent of ancient
bunjae trees taken for
replanting in Japanese
bonsai gardens. It was
at this time as well that the traditional religious architecture
was discouraged.
Japanese architecture was first introduced in the Korean
transportation networks.
Railroad lines saw
the construction of Japanese-style
rail
stations and
hotels.
Ports as transit points, however, had limited
construction. Inland, the Japanese built new
city halls,
barracks and
military bases,
jail and
prisons,
police stations, and
police box. Having prohibited the
teaching of the
Korean language in
schools, Japan built many new schools along Japanese educational
models. Korean architectural schools were subsequently closed, and
Korean architects were required to train only in Japan and
encouraged to design exclusively along Japanese models when they
returned. While the assumption was that
Western influences on Japanese
architects would have transferred to Korea, this did not
happen.
Materials were in short supply, with the Japanese
logging almost all
old-growth forests and shipping
particularly large
cypress logs to
Japan, taking any other
building
materials of use for export. It left Korean buildings
unrestored and neglected, and contributed to the deterioration of
much of Korean architectural history. Historic buildings were also
decorated by Japanese ornamentation.
The Japanese discarded European cultural influences in Korea as
well, meaning that Korea had in a period spanning about 55 years in
which there were no influences of
Art
Nouveau,
Art Deco,
Bauhaus, or
Style
Moderne, and no influence until the post-war period of
American architecture, such as
skyscrapers or large-scale apartment
buildings.
Post-war period and Korean War architecture
After the
unconditional
surrender in 1945, American architecture assumed supremacy.
Under
Douglas MacArthur, who set Korean
domestic and political policy from the Supreme Command of the
Allied Powers headquarters in Tokyo
.
Korean architecture by Koreans began once again in domestic areas,
with extensive repair of the missionary churches being given
priority funding. Essential repair to infrastructure followed, more
patch-work than new projects, and block-built hospitals, schools,
industries began simple construction under military
supervision.
Seoul had
survived much of World War II but
during the Korean War (1950–1953), many
buildings were destroyed, with the city changing command between
North
Korean
and South
Korean powers five times. Street-to-street fighting and artillery barrages levelled much of the city, as
well as the bridges over the Han River
. Important architectural sites were over-run
and burnt by invading
People's
Liberation Army forces,
looting was
extensive, and the urban landscape suffered with little money for
repairs.
Modern architecture
With the armistice, and distinct architectural styles determined by
foreign governments began a long period of development.
In the north,
Stalinist and
absolutist, often
brutalist
architecture, was championed.
North Korean architects studied in
Moscow
or Soviet satellites, and brought back
socialist worker styles and huge celebratory people's architecture
on a grand and massively impressive scale. Nomenclatura lived in Soviet
-style
apartment blocks, farmers and rural workers lived in traditional
houses as they always had; urbanization did not occur.
Grand
buildings and huge public squares were developed in Pyongyang
as architectural showpieces. Formal
processional landscapes accompanied these sites. Nearly all
architecture was government sponsored, and maintained great
homogeneity of function and style.
In the south, American models defined all new Korean buildings of
any importance, with domestic architecture both civil and rural
keeping to traditional buildings, building techniques, and using
local materials, and local vernacular styles. The pragmatic need to
rebuild a country devastated by genocide, then a civil war, led to
ad hoc buildings with no particular styles, extended repeatedly,
and a factory system of simple cheap expendable buildings. As few
Korean cities had a grid-system, and were often given limits by
mountains, few if any urban landscapes had a sense of distinction;
by the mid-1950s, rural areas were underfunded, urban areas
overfilled, and
urban sprawl began with
little money to build distinctive important buildings.
Buildings were built as quickly as money and demand would allow in
a workman-like anonymous way, but without individual identities.
Architects were almost to a man trained in the United States, and
brought American design, perspective, and methods without much
recourse to the local community look and feel. As the need for
housing for workers increased, traditional
hanok villages were razed, hundreds of simple cheap
apartments were put up very fast, and
bedroom communities on the periphery of
the urban centres grew, built and financed as company housing.
Little effort was made to have a sense of an architectural
aesthetic.
This
urgency for simple fast housing left most Korean downtowns as
faceless as Hong
Kong
: concrete towers for work or living and local
neighborhoods rebuilt with cheap materials. Little or no
attempt was made for planning, if planning had been possible. In
the countryside, traditional building continued.
Well into the 1980s, Korea had architecture, but its buildings had
little aesthetic, a limited sense of design, and did not integrate
into the neighbourhoods or culture. Awareness that functionality
had reached its limits came quickly as Korea moved into the world
through sports culture.
Sports architecture
Seoul World Cup Stadium.
South Korea was selected to host the
1986 Asian Games and the
1988 Olympic games, which spurred waves
of new building activity. To market the country globally,
international architects were encouraged to submit designs,
introducing alternative concepts for modern architecture that began
to put style and form ahead of spartan practicality. Historically,
sports architecture has occupied the most money and the greatest
expression of form identity within Korea. Hundreds of billions of
won have been spent on defining
Korea as a sports mecca with the architecture leading the
way.
As in the North, most of the largest projects in the South were
government sponsored works: but instead worked in confined, rather
than open spaces, and worked with huge amounts of enclosed space,
primarily in the state subsidized hugely expensive sports
architecture. Korea since the 1980s had its most notable
architectural works driven by sports: the
Asian Games (1986), the Olympics (1988), and the
2002 World Cup stadium, as
well as great support being given by the
chaebols such as the
Samsung
Group which itself owned the sports teams for marketing
purposes.
Important architects at this time and their works, often led by the
atelier-style architectural co-operative
Space Group of Korea, were:
It wasn't until the late 1980s and early 1990s that an entirely new
generation of Korean architects had the freedom and the financing
to build Korean architecture in a distinct Korean manner. This was
a result of architects studying and training in Europe, Canada, and
even in South America, and seeing the need for more of a sense of
unique style, and more sophisticated materials. There was a new
determination that nationalistic architectural elements had to be
revived and refined. Buildings had to mean something within their
cultural context.
Post-modern Korean architecture
Post-modern Korean architecture is defined as from 1986 to 2005.
Cultural and museum buildings have followed; with city halls and
buildings for the civil service appearing generally in a New
York/Chicago style rather than following London or Paris
trends.
Individuality and experimentation became the new cause for young
architects, however the country as a whole was slow to move from
the old traditions into seeing good architecture aesthetics as
being important to the sense of a village, town, or city. Change
was forced at times against intense resistance, and new buildings
evolved at great cost to the architects and builders and within a
great tension.
Much of the growth of new architecture came from retail stores,
clothing shops, bistros, cafes, and bars; and the underside of
architectural commissions, rather than from major
government contracts or the financial
and corporate community. Foreign corporations setting up Korean
headquarters also brought in an entirely new spirit of architecture
to define their own visions.
Important architects at this time include:
See also
References
- Jipjari [House]. In Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary
of Korean Archaeology], edited by National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage, Seoul, 2001, pp.1130-1131.
- Seongdong-ri Jibjari [The Seongdong-ri Settlement Site]. In
Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology],
edited by National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Seoul,
2001, pp. 652-653.
- Siji-dong Yujeok [The Siji-dong Site]. In Hanguk Gogohak
Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology], edited by National
Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Seoul, 2001, pp.
749-751.
- Dancheong
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