The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883, Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 Before Present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter, and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815.

Volcanoes in Indonesia are a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes.

The most active volcanoes are Kelut and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times. The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has named Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.

Scope

There is no single standard definition for volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edificies or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

The primary source of the list below is taken from the "Volcanoes of the World" book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert, in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed. Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior publication series. The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia, and some academic resources.

Geographical groups

Sumatra

The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km (1,050 mi) from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate. The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake. The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formulation of magma chambers beneath the island.

Only one of the 35 active volcanos, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
		(m)	(ft)
Weh	stratovolcano	617	2,024	Pleistocene
Seulawah Agam	stratovolcano	1,810	5,938	1839 (2)
Peuet Sague	complex volcano	2,801	9,190	25 December 2000 (2)
Geureudong	stratovolcano	2,885	9,465	1937
Kembar	shield volcano	2,245	7,365	Pleistocene

Image:Sibayak.jpg|Sibayak.Image:Toba_zoom.jpg|Landsat image of Lake Toba.Image:Monte Marapi.JPG|Marapi.Image:Kerinci.jpg|Mount Kerinci, the highest volcano on Sumatra.

Sunda Strait and Java

The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatau lying between them.Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large calderaunder the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx.3000 miles or 4800 km away). A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the center of the caldera in 1930. The other Krakatau isletsfrom the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.

Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small crater and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex.Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelud are the most active volcanoes in Java.Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967. Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoessince 1995. Ijen has a unique colorful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH<0.3). There="" are="" sulfur="" mining="" activities="" at="" Ijen,="" where="" miners="" collect="" highly="" concentrated="" rocks="" by="" hand.=""></0.3).>



Image:Anak_Krakatau.jpg|Satellite image of Anak Krakatauwith fresh lava flows.Image:Tangkuban Parahu.jpg|Tangkuban Perahu, taken from the above.Image:Galunggung.jpg|Lightning strikes during the 1982 Galunggung eruption.Image:Blethrow_merapi1.jpg|Mount Merapi, the most active volcano in Indonesia.Image:Mahameru-volcano.jpeg|Semeru, Java's highest volcano, which has been erupting since 1967.Image:Ijen_volcano.jpg|The turquoise colored sulfuric lake on the Ijen caldera.

Lesser Sunda Islands

The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf.Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crustsand the movement of the shelf itself. Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island.Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.

Banda Sea

The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands.Three major tectonic platesbeneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacificand Indo-Australianplates, have been converging since the Mesozoicepoch. Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly island, but some are submarine volcanoes.

Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands

Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes).The central part is high mountaineous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretches to the north to Sangihe Islands.The Sangihe Islands marks the border with Philippines.

Halmahera

Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays.A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore.Gamalama's island name is Ternate and it has been the center for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512.Due to its location as the center for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early sixteenth century.

Major eruptions

Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEIare given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted some fatalities.

See also

• Indonesia
• List of Indonesian earthquakes
• List of volcanoes

References

General references

1. ^
2. ^

Notes

External links

• Volcanological Survey Indonesia
• Tectonics of Indonesia

Sibayak	stratovolcano	2,212	7,257	1881
Sinabung	stratovolcano	2,460	8,071	unknown
Toba	supervolcano	2,157	7,077	unknown
Helatoba-Tarutung	fumarole field	1,100	3,609	Pleistocene
Imun	unknown	1,505	4,938	unknown
Sibualbuali	stratovolcano	1,819	5,968	unknown
Lubukraya	stratovolcano	1,862	6,109	unknown
Sorikmarapi	stratovolcano	2,145	7,037	1986 (1)
Talakmau	complex volcano	2,919	9,577	unknown
Sarik-Gajah	volcanic cone	unknown	unknown	unknown
Marapi	complex volcano	2,891	9,485	5 August 2004 (2)
Tandikat	stratovolcano	2,438	7 999	1924 (1)
Talang	stratovolcano	2,597	8,520	12 April 2005 (2)
Kerinci	stratovolcano	3,800	12,467	22 June 2004 (2)
Hutapanjang	stratovolcano	2,021	6,631	unknown
Sumbing	stratovolcano	2,507	8,225	23 May 1921 (2)
Kunyit	stratovolcano	2,151	7,057	unknown
Pendan	unknown	unknown	unknown	unknown
Belirang-Beriti	compound	1,958	6,424	unknown
Bukit Daun	stratovolcano	2,467	8,094	unknown
Kaba	stratovolcano	1,952	6,404	22 August 2000 (1)
Dempo	stratovolcano	3,173	10,410	October 1994 (1)
Patah	unknown	2,817	9,242	unknown
Bukit Lumut Balai	stratovolcano	2,055	6,742	unknown
Besar	stratovolcano	1,899	6,230	April 1940 (1)
Ranau	caldera	1,881	6,171	unknown
Sekincau Belirang	caldera	1,719	5,640	unknown
Suoh	caldera	1,000	3,281	10 July 1933 (4)
Hulubelu	caldera	1,040	3,412	unknown
Rajabasa	stratovolcano	1,281	4,202	unknown
Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
(m)	(ft)
Krakatau	caldera	813	2,667	21 July 2001 (1)
Pulosari	stratovolcano	1,346	4,416	unknown
Karang	stratovolcano	1,778	5,833	unknown
Kiaraberes-Gagak	stratovolcano	1,511	4,957	6 April 1939 (1)
Perbakti	stratovolcano	1,699	5,574	unknown
Salak	stratovolcano	2,211	7,254	31 January 1938 (2)
Gede	stratovolcano	2,958	9,705	13 March 1957 (2)
Patuha	stratovolcano	2,434	7,986	unknown
Wayang-Windu	lava dome	2,182	7,159	unknown
Malabar	stratovolcano	2,343	7,687	unknown
Tangkuban Perahu	stratovolcano	2,084	6,837	14 September 1983 (1)
Papandayan	stratovolcano	2,665	8,743	11 November 2002 (2)
Kendang	stratovolcano	2,608	8,556	unknown
Kamojang	stratovolcano	1,730	5,676	Pleistocene
Guntur	complex volcano	2,249	7,379	16 October 1847 (2)
Tampomas	stratovolcano	1,684	5,525	unknown
Galunggung	stratovolcano	2,168	7,113	9 January 1984 (1)
Talagabodas	stratovolcano	2,201	7,221	unknown
Karaha	fumarole	1,155	3,789	unknown
Cereme	stratovolcano	3,078	10,098	unknown
Slamet	stratovolcano	3,432	11,247	1 May 1999 (1)
Dieng	complex volcano	2,565	8,415	31 December 1996 (1)
Sundoro	stratovolcano	3,136	10,289	29 October 1971 (2)
Sumbing	stratovolcano	3,371	11,060	1730 (1)
Ungaran	stratovolcano	2,050	6,726	unknown
Telomoyo	stratovolcano	1,894	6,214	unknown
Merbabu	stratovolcano	3,145	10,318	1797 (2)
Merapi	stratovolcano	2,968	9,738
15 May 2006
Muria	stratovolcano	1,625	5,331	160 BC ± 30 years
Lawu	stratovolcano	3,265	10,712	28 November 1885 (1)
Wilis	stratovolcano	2,563	8,409	unknown
Kelud	stratovolcano	1,731	5,679	10 February 1990 (4)
Kawi-Butak	stratovolcano	2,651	8,698	unknown
Arjuno-Welirang	stratovolcano	3,339	10,955	15 August 1952 (0)
Penanggungan	stratovolcano	1,653	5,423	unknown
Malang Plain	maar	680	2,231	unknown
Semeru	stratovolcano	3,676	12,060	1967–2006 continuing (3)
Tengger	stratovolcano	2,329	7,641	8 June 2004 (2)
Lamongan	stratovolcano	1,651	5,417	5 February 1898 (2)
Lurus	complex volcano	539	1,768	unknown
Iyang-Argapura	complex volcano	3,088	10,131	unknown
Raung	stratovolcano	3,332	10,932	2 June 2002 (2)
Ijen	stratovolcano	2,799	9,183	28 June 1999 (1)
Baluran	stratovolcano	1,247	4,091	unknown
Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
(m)	(ft)
Merbuk	tba	1,386	4,547	unknown	-
Bratan	caldera	2,276	7,467	unknown
Batur	caldera	1,717	5,633	15 March 1999 (1)
Agung	stratovolcano	3,142	10,308	18 February 1963 (5)
Rinjani	stratovolcano	3,726	12,224	1 October 2004 (2)
Tambora	stratovolcano	2,850	9,350	1967 ± 20 years (0)
Sangeang Api	complex volcano	1,949	6,394	30 July 1985 (3)
Wai Sano	caldera	903	2,963	unknown
Poco Leok	unknown	1,675	5,495	unknown
Ranakah	lava dome	2,100	6,890	March 1991 (1)
Inierie	stratovolcano	2,245	7,365	8050 BC
Inielika	complex volcano	1,559	5,115	11 January 2001 (2)
Ebulobo	stratovolcano	2,124	6,969	27 February 1969 (2)
Iya	stratovolcano	637	2,090	27 January 1969 (3)
Sukaria	caldera	1,500	4,921	unknown
Ndete Napu	fumarole	750	2,461	unknown
Kelimutu	complex volcano	1,639	5,377	3 June 1968 (1)
Paluweh	stratovolcano	875	2,871	3 February 1985 (1)
Egon	stratovolcano	1,703	5,587	6 February 2005 (1)
Ilimuda	stratovolcano	1,100	3,609	unknown
Lewotobi	stratovolcano	1,703	5,587	30 May 2003 (2)
Leroboleng	complex volcano	1,117	3,665	26 June 2003 (3)
Riang Kotang	fumarole	200	656	unknown
Iliboleng	stratovolcano	1,659	5,443	June 1993 (1)
Lewotolo	stratovolcano	1,423	4,669	15 December 1951 (2)
Ililabalekan	stratovolcano	1,018	3,340	unknown
Iliwerung	complex volcano	1,018	3,340	22 May 1999 (0)
Batu Tara	stratovolcano	748	2,454	1847 (2)
Sirung	complex volcano	862	2,828	1970 (2)
Yersey	submarine	-3,800	-12,467	unknown
Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
(m)	(ft)
Emperor of China	submarine	-2,850	-9,350	unknown
Nieuwerkerk	submarine	-2,285	-7,500	unknown
Gunungapi Wetar	stratovolcano	282	925	1699 (3)
Wurlali	stratovolcano	868	2,850	3 June 1892 (2)
Teon	stratovolcano	655	2,150	3 June 1904 (2)
Nila	stratovolcano	781	2,500	7 May 1968 (1)
Serua	stratovolcano	641	2,100	18 September 1921 (2)
Manuk	stratovolcano	282	925	unknown
Banda Api	caldera	640	2,100	9 May 1988 (3)
Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
(m)	(ft)
Colo	stratovolcano	507	1,663	18 July 1983 (4)
Ambang	complex volcano	1,795	5,890	1845 ± 5 years
Soputan	stratovolcano	1,784	5,853	24–30 October 2007
Sempu	caldera	1,549	5,082	unknown
Tondano	caldera	1,202	3,944	unknown
Lokon-Empung	stratovolcano	1,580	5,184	23 September 2003 (3)
Mahawu	stratovolcano	1,324	4,344	16 November 1977 (0)
Klabat	stratovolcano	1,995	6,545	unknown
Tongkoko	stratovolcano	1,149	3,770	1880 (1)
Ruang	stratovolcano	725	2,379	25 September 2002 (4)
Karangetang	stratovolcano	1,784	5,853	August 2007
Banua Wuhu	submarine	-5	-16.5	18 July 1919 (3)
Awu	stratovolcano	1,320	4,331	2 June 2004 (2)
Submarine 1922	submarine	-5,000	-16,404	unknown
Name	Shape	Elevation		Last eruption (VEI)	Geolocation
(m)	(ft)
Tarakan	pyroclastic cone	318	1,043	unknown
Dukono	complex volcano	1,335	4,380	13 August 1933 (3)
Tobaru	unknown	1,035	3,396	unknown
Ibu	stratovolcano	1,325	4,347	May 2005 (0)
Gamkonora	stratovolcano	1,635	5,364	9 July 2007 (?)
Todoko-Ranu	caldera	979	3,212	unknown
Jailolo	stratovolcano	1,130	3,707	unknown
Hiri	stratovolcano	630	2,067	unknown
Gamalama	stratovolcano	1,715	5,627	31 July 2003 (2)
Tidore	stratovolcano	1,730	5,676	unknown
Mare	stratovolcano	308	1,010	unknown
Moti	stratovolcano	950	3,117	unknown
Makian	stratovolcano	1,357	4,452	29 July 1988 (3)
Tigalalu	stratovolcano	422	1,385	unknown
Amasing	stratovolcano	1,030	3,379	unknown
Bibinoi	stratovolcano	900	2,953	unknown
Eruption date	Volcano	Cessation date	VEI	Characteristics	Tsunami	Tephra volume	Fatality	Sources
20 Jan 1992	Merapi	19 Oct 2002	2	cv,pf,ld,lm	no	N/A	66
10 Feb 1990	Kelut	Mar 1990	4	cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm	no	0.13 km³	35
18 Jul 1983	Colo	Dec 1983	4	cv,pf,ph	no	N/A	0
5 Apr 1982	Galunggung	8 Jan 1983	4	cv,pf,lf,lm	no	> 0.37 km³	68
6 Oct 1972	Merapi	Mar 1985	2	cv,pf,lf,ld,lm	no	0.021 km³	29
26 Apr 1966	Kelut	27 Apr 1966	4	cv,cl,pf,lm	no	0.089 km³	212
17 Mar 1963	Agung	27 Jan 1964	5	cv,pf,lf,lm	no	1 km³	1,148
31 Aug 1951	Kelut	31 Aug 1951	4	cv,cl,pf,lm	no	0.2 km³	7
25 Nov 1930	Merapi	Sep 1931	3	cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm	no	0.0017 km³	1,369
19 May 1919	Kelut	20 May 1919	4	cv,cl,pf,lm	no	0.19 km³	5,110
7 Jun 1892	Awu	12 Jun 1892	3	cv,pf,lm	yes	N/A	1,532
26 Aug 1883	Krakatau	Feb 1884	6	cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc	15–42 m	5–8.5 km³	36,600
15 Apr 1872	Merapi	21 Apr 1872	4	cv,pf	no	0.33 km³	200
2 Mar 1856	Awu	17 Mar 1856	3	cv,pf,lm	yes	0.51±0.50 km³	2,806
8 Oct 1822	Galunggung	Dec 1822	5	cv,pf,ld,lm	no	> 1 km³	4,011
10 Apr 1815	Mount Tambora	15 Jul 1815	7	cv,pf,cc	1–2 m	160 km³	> 71,000
6 Aug 1812	Awu	8 Aug 1812	4	cv,pf,lm	no	0.55±0.50 km³	963
12 Aug 1772	Papandayan	12 Aug 1772	3	cv,ph	no	N/A	2,957
4 Aug 1672	Merapi	unknown	3	cv,pf,lm	no	N/A	3,000
1586	Kelut	unknown	5	cf,cl,lm	no	> 1 km³	10,000
≈ 74,000 BP	Toba	unknown	8	pf,lf,cc	likely	2,800 km³	near extinction of human population