Merneith (Meritnit, Meryet-Nit or Meryt-Neith) was a consort, a regent, and the fourth pharaoh of Ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. The later being evidenced by several official records and persuasive evidence confirmed in diverse archeological research. Her rule was in the thirtieth century B.C., for an undetermined period of time. Merneith’s name means Beloved by Neith and her stela contains symbols of that deity. Generally, she also is believed to have been the wife of Djet and the mother of Den.

It is acknowledged widely that Merneith possessed an enormous amount of power and influence in her time, but academic debate remains in some quarters as to how much power she had and, to whether she was a regent or pharaoh. In either event, she gained more power than any previous Egyptian woman about whom details are known.

Her name does appear on at least one list of pharaohs among the fragmentary contemporary records of the first dynasty and she was buried with the full honors—traditionally afforded only to pharaohs at that time.

Discoveries

In 1900 William Petrie discovered Merneith’s tomb and, because of its nature, believed it belonged to a previously unknown pharaoh. The tomb was excavated and described as a significant discovery that expanded modern knowledge about the pharaohs of the first dynasty.

Subsequent findings at another site later proved that Merneith was a woman, creating a dilemma for Egyptologists of the day who never expected to discover a pharaoh of early Egypt who was a woman. A clay seal found in the tomb of her son, Den, was engraved with “King’s Mother Merneith”, supporting the view that Merneith was a woman. It also is known that Den’s father was Djet, making it likely, therefore, that Merneith was Djet’s royal wife. Descent from royal women was important throughout the history of Ancient Egypt because they carried the royal lineage, so their names appear on written records that have been found to date.

Evidence of rule

Merneith is believed to have become ruler upon the death of her husband, Djet. The title she held, however, is debated. It is possible that her son Den was too young to rule at this point, so she may have ruled as regent. Along with other historical details of the first dynasty and its pharaohs, evidence supporting the view that Merneith ruled as pharaoh is scarce.

The strongest evidence that Merneith was a pharaoh is her burial. She was afforded all of the burial rights of a pharaoh. It was the custom for early pharaohs to have two funerary monuments, the first being the tomb and the second serving as a monument and place of worship. Merneith has both. So far Merneith is the only woman known to have been afforded the honor of both funerary monuments in that dynasty, and there are other women from the first dynasty who are honored highly. Other women from that dynasty who served as regent have large tombs, but they differ significantly from those of the pharaohs, lacking the place of worship, as Merneith's does.

At Abydos the tomb belonging to Merneith was found in an area associated with other pharaohs of the first dynasty, Umm el-Qa'ab. A stela made of stone identifying the tomb as hers, was found at the site. This monument would have served as an offering place separate from the tomb, where she would be worshiped in the same fashion as the other pharaohs buried near her.

Her burial was in a tomb that contained a large underground chamber, lined with mud bricks, that was surrounded by rows of small satellite burials where approximately fifty sacrificed servants were buried.

The servants were thought to assist the ruler in the afterlife. The burial of servants with the ruler was a consistent practice in the tombs of the early first dynasty pharaohs. Large numbers of sacrificial assets were buried in her tomb complex as well, which is another honor afforded to pharaohs that provided the ruler with powerful animals for eternal life. This first dynasty burial complex was very important in the Egyptian religious tradition and its importance grew as the culture endured.

Inside her tomb archaeologists discovered a solar boat that would allow her to travel with the sun deity in the afterlife. This is strong evidence that hers is the tomb of a pharaoh. The journey in the solar boat after death was believed to fulfill the sacred destiny reserved for pharaohs. A solar boat was provided exclusively for the burial of pharaohs. In the pyramid texts the solar barque (boat) carries the soul of the pharaoh to the heavens and it may have been the means to transport the body of the pharaoh to the tomb.

Considered one of the most important archaeological sites of ancient Egypt (near the town of al-Balyana), the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including a Umm el-Qa'ab, the royal necropolis, where early pharaohs were entombed. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site.

Other evidence which supports Merneith’s rule is a seal found in the tomb of her son, Den. The seal includes Merneith on a list of the first dynasty pharaohs. Merneith's name was the only name of a woman included on the list. All of the names on the list had a Horus falcon, the symbol of a king, next to it. However, there is no falcon against Merneith’s name, as using that symbol may have been unacceptable for a woman. Her name is preceded instead by a Nekhbet white vulture, representing what may be the oldest deity of southern Ancient Egypt—a protector of pharaohs who is shown on their crowns. Further evidence that she was a pharaoh, is that none of the queens of the other pharaohs were listed, including one who may have ruled as regent for a youthful son.

A few other pieces of evidence exist elsewhere about Merneith, items from the great mastaba (Nr 3503, 16 x 42 m) in Saqqara where her name has been found in inscriptions on stone vessels, jars, as well as the seal impressions. Although evidence about all early pharaohs is rare, one explanation proposed for the scarcity of evidence about the rule of Merneith is that all documents from her reign may have used the name of Den, her young son. A seal containing a list of pharaohs of the first dynasty was found in the tomb of Qa'a, the third known pharaoh after Den, but it contains no mention of the reign of Merneith. Names of pharaohs, however, are not consistent on the various lists found. Records of the early pharaohs are incomplete and vary from one source to another, some are difficult to corroborate.

At Saqqara a funerary monument dedicated to Merneith was found along with those of five other pharaohs from the same period. Monuments were built for earlier pharaohs at this location when it became the burial grounds for some later pharaohs, which also provides evidence of recognition of Merneith as an early ruler by those who followed her.

Speculation and unproven assertions

Conjecture exists that Merneith was the daughter of the pharaoh, Djer, although no evidence has been found to support this theory. The exact position that Merneith held is greatly disputed. Manetho indicates that the first dynasty ruled from Memphis, and that a wife of Djer, named Herneith, is buried at Saqqara. This would make her the mother of Merneith if the lineage is correct.

Another unproven assertion is that the marriage of Djet and Merneith served to unify the newly joined kingdoms of Lower and Upper Egypt. Although her father ruled from Memphis, based on her name’s meaning some theorize that she came from Lower Egypt where the center of worship for Neith was located at Sais in the delta region.

See also

• Pharaoh
• List of Pharaohs
• First dynasty of Egypt

References