Meteorology is the
interdisciplinary scientific study of the
atmosphere that focuses on
weather processes and forecasting (in
contrast with
climatology). Studies in
the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in
meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. The
nineteenth century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks
developed across several countries. Breakthroughs in weather
forecasting were achieved in the latter half of the twentieth
century, after the development of the computer.
Meteorological
phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and
are explained by the science of meteorology. Those events are bound
by the variables that exist in
Earth's
atmosphere: They are
temperature,
air pressure,
water vapor, and the gradients and interactions
of each variable, and how they change in time. The majority of
Earth's observed weather is located in the
troposphere. Different spatial scales are
studied to determine how systems on local, region, and global
levels impact weather and climatology. Meteorology,
climatology,
atmospheric physics, and
atmospheric chemistry are
sub-disciplines of the
atmospheric
sciences. Meteorology and
hydrology
compose the interdisciplinary field of
hydrometeorology. Interactions between
Earth's atmosphere and the oceans are part of coupled
ocean-atmosphere studies. Meteorology has application in many
diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport,
agriculture and construction.
The word "
meteorology" is
from
Greek ,
metéōros, "high
in the sky"; and ,
-logia.
History
In 350 BC,
Aristotle wrote
Meteorology. Aristotle is
considered the founder of meteorology. For 2,000 years, no one
added anything significant to his findings (Farrand, 1991). One of
the most impressive achievements described in the
Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the
hydrologic cycle. The
Greek scientist
Theophrastus compiled a book on weather
forecasting, called the
Book of Signs. The work of
Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather
and in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years. In 25 AD,
Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the
Roman Empire, formalized the climatic
zone system. Around the 9th century,
Al-Kindi (Alkindus), an
Arab naturalist, wrote a treatise on
meteorology entitled
Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa
l-Fazr (
Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and
Ebb), in which he presents an argument on
tides which "depends on the changes which take place in
bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature." Also in the 9th
century,
Al-Dinawari, a
Kurdish naturalist, writes the
Kitab
al-Nabat (
Book of Plants), in which he deals with the
application of meteorology to
agriculture during the
Muslim Agricultural
Revolution. He describes the meteorological character of the
sky, the
planets and
constellations, the
sun and
moon, the
lunar
phases indicating
seasons and
rain, the
anwa (
heavenly bodies of rain), and
atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow,
floods, valleys, rivers, lakes, wells and other sources of water. ,
in
Research of visual atmospheric phenomena
In 1021,
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), an
Iraqi scientist writes on the
atmospheric refraction of
light. He showed that the twilight is due to
atmospheric refraction and only begins when the Sun is 19 degrees
below the
horizon, and uses a complex
geometric demonstration to measure the height of the
Earth's atmosphere as 52,000
passuum ( ), which is very close to the modern measurement
of . He also realized that the
atmosphere
also reflects light, from his
observations of the sky brightening even before
the
Sun rises. In 1121,
Al-Khazini, a
Muslim
scientist of
Byzantine Greek
descent, publishes the
The Book of the Balance of Wisdom,
the first study on the
hydrostatic balance. In the late
13th century and early 14th century,
Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi and his
student
Kamāl
al-Dīn al-Fārisī continued the work of Ibn al-Haytham, and they
were the first to give the correct explanations for the
rainbow phenomenon. In 1716, Edmund Halley suggests
that
aurorae are caused by
"magnetic effluvia" moving along the
Earth's magnetic field lines.
Instruments and classification scales
150 px
In 1441,
King Sejongs
son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized
rain gauge.
These were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty
of Korea
as an
official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential
harvest. In 1450,
Leone
Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate
anemometer, and is known as the first
anemometer. In 1607,
Galileo
Galilei constructs a
thermoscope. In 1611,
Johannes Kepler writes the first scientific
treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New
Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)". In 1643,
Evangelista Torricelli invents the
mercury
barometer. In 1662, Sir
Christopher Wren invented the mechanical,
self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. In 1714,
Gabriel Fahrenheit creates a reliable
scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer. In
1742,
Anders Celsius, a Swedish
astronomer, proposed the 'centigrade' temperature scale, the
predecessor of the current
Celsius scale. In
1783, the first hair
hygrometer is
demonstrated by
Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure. In 1802-1803,
Luke Howard
writes
On the Modification of Clouds in which he assigns
cloud types Latin names. In 1806,
Francis Beaufort introduced his
system for classifying wind speeds. Near the
end of the
19th century the first
cloud atlases were published, including
the
International Cloud
Atlas, which has remained in print ever since. The April
1960 launch of the first successful
weather satellite,
TIROS-1, marked the beginning of the age where
weather information became available globally.
Atmospheric composition research
In 1648,
Blaise Pascal rediscovers
that
atmospheric pressure
decreases with height, and deduces that there is a vacuum above the
atmosphere. In 1738,
Daniel
Bernoulli publishes
Hydrodynamics, initiating the
kinetic theory of gases and
established the basic laws for the theory of gases. In 1761,
Joseph Black discovers that
ice absorbs
heat without changing
its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student
Daniel Rutherford discovers
nitrogen, which he calls
phlogisticated
air, and together they developed the
phlogiston theory. In 1777,
Antoine Lavoisier discovers
oxygen and develops an explanation for combustion. In
1783, in Lavoisier's book
Reflexions sur le phlogistique,
he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a
caloric theory. In 1804, Sir
John Leslie observes that a matte
black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished
surface, suggesting the importance of
black body radiation. In 1808,
John Dalton defends caloric theory in
A New
System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter,
especially gases; he proposes that the
heat capacity of gases varies inversely with
atomic weight. In 1824,
Sadi Carnot analyzes the
efficiency of
steam engines using
caloric theory; he develops the notion of a
reversible process and, in postulating
that no such thing exists in nature, lays the foundation for the
second law of
thermodynamics.
Research into cyclones and air flow
The westerlies and trade winds are part of the Earth's atmospheric
circulation
In 1494,
Christopher Columbus
experiences a tropical cyclone, leads to the first written European
account of a hurricane. In 1686,
Edmund
Halley presents a systematic study of the
trade winds and
monsoons
and identifies solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.
In 1735, an
ideal explanation of
global circulation through study of
the
Trade winds was written by
George Hadley. In 1743, when
Benjamin Franklin is prevented from seeing
a lunar eclipse by a
hurricane, he
decides that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at
their periphery. Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the
rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy
yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. In
1856,
William Ferrel proposed the
existence of a
circulation cell in the
mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to
create the prevailing westerly winds. Late in the 19th century the
full extent of the large scale interaction of
pressure gradient force and
deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move
along isobars was understood. By
1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect.
Just after
World War II, a group of meteorologists
in Norway
led by
Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the
Norwegian cyclone model that
explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the
life cycle) of mid-latitude
cyclones, introducing the idea of fronts, that is, sharply defined
boundaries between air masses. The
group included
Carl-Gustaf Rossby
(who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in
terms of
fluid dynamics),
Tor Bergeron (who first determined the
mechanism by which rain forms) and
Jacob
Bjerknes.
Observation networks and weather forecasting
Cloud classification by altitude of occurrence
In 1654,
Ferdinando II de Medici
establishes the first weather observing network, that
consisted of meteorological stations in Florence
, Cutigliano
, Vallombrosa, Bologna
, Parma
, Milan
, Innsbruck
, Osnabruck
, Paris
and Warsaw
.
Collected data was centrally sent to Florence at regular time
intervals. In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by
Baron Schilling. The arrival of the
electrical telegraph in 1837
afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly
gathering
surface weather
observations from a wide area. This data could be used to
produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the
Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time.
To make
frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable
network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the
Smithsonian
Institution
began to establish an observation network across
the United
States
under the leadership of Joseph Henry. Similar observation
networks were established in
Europe at this
time.
In
1854, the United
Kingdom
government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new office of
Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade with the role
of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office
became the
United Kingdom Meteorological
Office in 1854, the first national meteorological service in
the world. The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's
Office were published in
The
Times newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was
introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when
a gale was expected.
Over the next 50 years many countries established national
meteorological services. The
India Meteorological
Department (1875) was established following tropical cyclone
and
monsoon related
famines in the previous decades.
The Finnish
Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of
Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University
. Japan
's Tokyo
Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the Japan Meteorological Agency,
began constructing surface weather maps in 1883.
The
United States Weather
Bureau (1890) was established under the United
States Department of Agriculture
. The
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
(1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state
meteorological services.
Numerical weather prediction
A meteorologist at the console of the
IBM 7090 in the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit. c.
In 1904, Norwegian scientist
Vilhelm
Bjerknes first argued in his paper
Weather Forecasting as a
Problem in Mechanics and Physics that it should be possible to
forecast weather from calculations based upon
natural laws.
It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the
understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of
modern
numerical weather
prediction. In 1922,
Lewis Fry
Richardson published "Weather Prediction By Numerical Process,"
after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance
driver in World War I. He described therein how small terms in the
prognostic fluid dynamics equations governing atmospheric flow
could be neglected, and a finite differencing scheme in time and
space could be devised, to allow numerical prediction solutions to
be found. Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of
people performing the calculations and passing them to others.
However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to
be completed without the use of computers, and the size of the grid
and time steps led to unrealistic results in deepening systems. It
was later found, through numerical analysis, that this was due to
numerical instability.
Starting in the 1950s,
numerical forecasts
with computers became feasible. The first
weather forecasts derived this way used
barotropic (that means,
single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the
large-scale movement of midlatitude
Rossby
waves, that is, the pattern of
atmospheric lows and
highs.
In the 1960s, the
chaotic nature of the
atmosphere was first observed and understood by
Edward Lorenz, founding the field of
chaos theory. These advances have led to the
current use of
ensemble
forecasting in most major forecasting centers, to take into
account uncertainty arising from the chaotic nature of the
atmosphere. In recent years,
climate
models have been developed that feature a resolution comparable
to older weather prediction models. These climate models are used
to investigate long-term
climate shifts,
such as what effects might be caused by human emission of
greenhouse gases.
Meteorologists
Meteorologists are
scientists who study meteorology. Meteorologists
work in
government agencies,
private consulting and
research services,
industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and
television stations, and in
education. In the United States, meteorologists
held about 8,800 jobs in 2006.
Meteorologists are best-known for forecasting the
weather. In 2006, more than 90 percent of the around
3,200 meteorologists employed by the
National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration worked as forecasters in the
National Weather Service.
Many radio and television weather forecasters are professional
meteorologists, while others are merely
reporters with no formal meteorological training.
The
American
Meteorological Society and
National Weather Association
issue "Seals of Approval" to weather broadcasters who meet certain
requirements.
Equipment
Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In
the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the
atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or
seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first ones to be measured
historically. Also, two other accurately measured
qualities are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be
seen but can be felt. The devices to measure these three
sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the
rain gauge, the anemometer, and the
hygrometer.
Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists.
They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one
single location and are usually at a
weather station, a
ship
or a
weather buoy. The measurements
taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric
observables. Usually, temperature,
pressure, wind measurements, and
humidity are the variables that are
measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer,
respectively. Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather
forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of
radiosondes. Supplementing the radiosondes a
network of aircraft
collection is organized by the
World Meteorological
Organization.
Remote sensing, as used in
meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather
events and subsequently producing weather information. The common
types of remote sensing are
Radar,
Lidar, and
satellites (or
photogrammetry). Each collects data
about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores
the data where the instrument is located. RADAR and LIDAR are not
passive because both use
EM radiation
to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere. Weather
satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing
satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an
indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from
forest fires to
El Niño.
Spatial scales
In the study of the atmosphere, meteorology can be divided into
distinct areas of emphasis depending on the temporal scope and
spatial scope of interest. At one extreme of this scale is
climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology
separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology.
Respectively, the
geospatial size of each
of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate
timescale.
Other subclassifications are available based on the need by or by
the unique, local or broad effects that are studied within that
sub-class.
Microscale
Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena of
about 1 km or less. Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and
local turbulence caused by buildings and other obstacles, such as
individual hills fall within this category.
Mesoscale
Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that
has horizontal scales ranging from microscale limits to synoptic
scale limits and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's
surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere,
tropopause, and the lower section of the
stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last
from less than a day to the lifetime of the event, which in some
cases can be weeks. The events typically of interest are
thunderstorms,
squall
lines,
fronts,
precipitation bands in
tropical and
extratropical cyclones, and
topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves
and
sea and land breezes.
Synoptic scale
Synoptic scale meteorology is generally large area dynamics
referred to in horizontal coordinates and with respect to time. The
phenomena typically described by
synoptic meteorology include events
like extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges,
frontal zones, and to some extent
jet streams. All of these are typically
given on
weather maps for a specific
time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena are
limited to the spacing between
surface
observation stations.Bluestein, H.,
Synoptic-Dynamic
Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics,
Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, 1992; ISBN
0-19-506267-1
Annual mean sea surface
temperatures.
Global scale
Global scale meteorology is study of weather patterns related to
the transport of heat from the
tropics to
the
poles. Also, very large scale
oscillations are of importance. Those oscillations have time
periods typically longer than a full annual seasonal cycle, such as
ENSO,
PDO,
MJO,
etc. Global scale pushes the thresholds of the perception of
meteorology into climatology. The traditional definition of climate
is pushed in to larger timescales with the further understanding of
how the global oscillations cause both climate and weather
disturbances in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales.
Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding
air-sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric
predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes..
Currently (2007) Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey produces the
atmospheric model called
NOGAPS, a global scale
atmospheric model, this model is run operationally at Fleet
Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center. There are several
other global atmospheric models.
Some meteorological principles
Boundary layer meteorology
Boundary layer meteorology is the
study of processes in the
air layer directly
above Earth's surface, known as the
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL).
The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and
friction – cause
turbulent
mixing within the air layer. Significant
fluxes of
heat,
matter, or
momentum on time
scales of less than a day are advected by turbulent
motions.
Garratt, J.R., The atmospheric boundary
layer, Cambridge University Press, 1992; ISBN
0-521-38052-9. Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all
types of surface-atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban
land and non-urban land.
Dynamic meteorology
Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the
fluid dynamics of the atmosphere. The idea of
air parcel is used to define the smallest
element of the atmosphere, while ignoring the discrete molecular
and chemical nature of the atmosphere. An air parcel is defined as
a point in the fluid continuum of the atmosphere. The fundamental
laws of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and motion are used to
study the atmosphere. The physical quantities that characterize the
state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc.
These variables have unique values in the continuum.
Applications
Weather forecasting
250 px
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to
predict the state of the
atmosphere for a future time and a given
location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather
informally for millennia, and formally since at least the
nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting
quantitative
data about the current state of
the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric
processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.
Once an all human endeavor based mainly upon changes in
barometric pressure, current weather
conditions, and sky condition,
forecast models are now used to
determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick
the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which
involves pattern recognition skills,
teleconnections, knowledge of model
performance, and knowledge of model biases. The
chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive
computational power required to solve the equations that describe
the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions,
and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that
forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time
and the time for which the forecast is being made (the
range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and
model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely
outcome.
There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather
warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect
life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and
precipitation are important to
agriculture, and therefore to commodity traders within stock
markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to
estimate demand over coming days. On an everyday basis, people use
weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since
outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain,
snow and the
wind chill,
forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and
to plan ahead and survive them.
Aviation meteorology
Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on
air traffic management. It is important
for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their
flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the
Aeronautical Information
Manual:
The effects of ice on aircraft are
cumulative-thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and
weight increases.
The results are an increase in stall speed and a
deterioration of aircraft performance.
In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on
the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5
minutes.
It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting
power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional
drag by an equal percentage.
Agricultural meteorology
Meteorologists,
soil scientists,
agricultural hydrologists, and
agronomists
are persons concerned with studying the effects of weather and
climate on plant distribution,
crop
yield, water-use efficiency,
phenology
of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed
and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role
of vegetation on climate and weather.
Hydrometeorology
Hydrometeorology is the branch of
meteorology that deals with the
hydrologic cycle, the water budget, and the
rainfall statistics of
storms. A
hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating
(quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and
highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically
the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology,
mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.
Nuclear meteorology
Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of
radioactive aerosols and
gases in the atmosphere.
Maritime meteorology
Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships
operating at sea.
Organizations such as the Ocean Prediction Center, Honolulu
National Weather Service
forecast office, United
Kingdom Met Office, and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the world's
oceans.
See also
References
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reliable. Even Aristotle notes this in some of his work; as
the difficulty to measure the air.
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Monterrey, Ca.
- Holton, J.R. [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology,
4th Ed., Burlington, Md: Elsevier Inc.. ISBN 0-12-354015-1.
- Mistic House. Astrology Lessons, History, Predition, Skeptics, and
Astrology Compatibility. Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
- Eric D. Craft. An Economic History of Weather Forecasting.
Retrieved on 2007-04-15.
- NASA. Weather Forecasting Through the Ages. Retrieved
on 2008-05-25.
- Weather Doctor. Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching. Retrieved
on 2008-05-25.
- Mark Moore. Field Forecasting - A Short Summary. Retrieved
on 2008-05-25.
- Klaus Weickmann, Jeff Whitaker, Andres Roubicek and Catherine
Smith. The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved
Medium Range (3-15 days) Weather Forecasts. Retrieved on
2007-02-16.
- Todd Kimberlain. Tropical cyclone motion and intensity talk (June
2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-21.
- Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and Chris Landsea. TPC/NHC’S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR
2006. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.
- National Weather Service. National
Weather Service Mission Statement. Retrieved on
2008-05-25.
- Blair Fannin. Dry weather conditions continue for Texas. Retrieved
on 2008-05-26.
- Dr. Terry Mader. Drought Corn Silage. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- Kathryn C. Taylor. Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care.
Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- Associated Press. After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop.
Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- The New York Times. FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In
Prices of Heating Fuels. Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
- BBC. Heatwave causes electricity surge. Retrieved on
2008-05-25.
- Toronto Catholic Schools. The Seven Key Messages of the Energy Drill
Program. Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
- An international version called the Aeronautical Information
Publication contains parallel information, as well as specific
information on the international airports for use by the
international community.
- "7-1-22. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing", [February
16, 2006], Aeronautical Information
Manual, FAA AIM Online
- Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Elsevier,
ISSN: 0168-1923.
- Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007.
- About the HPC, NOAA/ National Weather Service,
National Centers for Environmental Prediction, Hydrometeorological
Prediction Center, Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007.
Further reading
- Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1994.
External links
Please see weather
forecasting for weather forecast sites.
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