The
People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) ( ) is
the aviation branch of the People's Liberation Army, the
military of the People's
Republic of China
. It currently consists of approximately
400,000 personnel and about 2000 combat aircraft, making the PLAAF
the largest air force in
Asia and the third
largest in the world behind the
United States Air Force, and the
Russian Air Force.
History
Although
the Eighth Route Army (PLA's
predecessor) had operated a few aircraft since the Second Sino-Japanese War, the first
organized air arm of the PLA was the Nanyuan Flying Group,
formed in the summer of 1949 with about 40 ex-Nationalist aircraft,
responsible for the air defence of the soon-to-be capital city of
Beijing, China
.
The Soviet Union helped found the Air Force on
November 11,
1949, shortly
after the establishment of the
People's Republic, and began to provide
aircraft in late 1951. Production technology came two years later.
Soviet involvement also extended to training combat
pilot. Soviet instructors trained the new pilots in
Soviet tactics. Those new PLAAF pilots took part to some degree in
the
Korean War, where they along with
their Soviet counterparts often engaged
American aircraft in combat.
By 1956 China was assembling its own aircraft, but initially these
were copies of Soviet types. The first of them was the
J-2 (copy of
MiG-15); some western observers
referred to the upgraded
MiG-15bis variant as
J-4, but the PLAAF never used the
"J-4" aircraft designation. By 1958, increased cooperation with the
Soviets allowed China to produce both the
J-5 (
MiG-17) and the
J-6 (
MiG-19) manufactured under
license.
The 1960s proved to be a difficult period for the PLAAF. This was
due to the
break in relations with the
Soviet Union, and as a consequence of the withdrawal of Soviet
aid in 1960 the Chinese aircraft industry almost collapsed. The
industry declined markedly through 1963, further hindered by the
high priority accorded to the competing missile and nuclear weapons
program. The aircraft industry began to recover in about 1965, as
China began providing the forces of
North
Vietnam with J-2s, J-4s, J-5s, and some J-6s on the onset of
the
Vietnam War. The 1960s also saw the
first indigenous Chinese design, namely the
J-8.
The PLA Air Force underwent reorganization and streamlining as part
of the reduction in force begun in 1985. Before the 1985
reorganization, the Air Force reportedly had four branches:
air defense,
ground attack,
bombing, and independent air regiments. In peacetime
the Air Force Directorate, under the supervision of the PLA
General Staff Department,
controlled the Air Force through air army headquarters located
with, or in communication with, each of the seven
military region headquarters. In war,
control of the Air Force probably reverted to the regional
commanders. In 1987 it was not clear how the reorganization and the
incorporation of air support elements into the group armies
affected air force organization.
The largest Air Force organizational unit was the
division, which consisted of 17,000
personnel in three
regiments. A typical air
defense regiment had three
squadrons of
three flights; each flight had three or four aircraft. The Air
Force also had 220,000 air defense personnel who controlled about
100
surface-to-air missile
sites and over 16,000
antiaircraft guns. In addition, it had
a large number of
early-warning,
ground-control-intercept, and
air-base radars manned by specialized troops organized into at
least twenty-two independent regiments.
In the 1980s the Air Force made serious efforts to raise the
education level and improve the training of its pilots.
Superannuated pilots were retired or assigned
to other duties. All new pilots were at least
middle-school graduates. The time it took to
train a qualified pilot capable of performing combat missions
reportedly was reduced from four or five years to two years.
Training emphasized raising technical and tactical skills in
individual pilots and participation in
combined-arms operations.
Flight safety also increased.
In 1987 the Air Force had serious technological deficiencies —
especially when compared with its principal threat, the
Soviet Union — and had many
needs that it could not satisfy. It needed more advanced aircraft,
better
avionics,
electronic countermeasures
equipment, more powerful
aircraft
weaponry, a low-altitude
surface-to-air missile, and better
controlled
antiaircraft
artillery guns. Some progress was made in aircraft design with
the incorporation of Western avionics into the
F-7 (a copy of the
MiG-21) and
F-8, the development of refueling capabilities
for the
B-6D bomber and the
A-5 attack fighter, increased aircraft
all-weather capabilities, and the production of the
HQ-2J high-altitude surface-to-air missile and the
C-601 air-to-ship missile.
Although
the PLAAF received significant support from Western nations in the
1980s when China was seen as a counterweight to Soviet power, this
support ended in 1989 as a result of the Chinese crackdown on the
Tiananmen
protests of 1989
and the later collapse of the Soviet Union in
1991. Ironically, while the Soviet Union
was China's former foe, after the fall of the
USSR
, Russia became China's principal arms supplier to
the effect that Chinese economic growth allowed Russia to sustain
its aerospace industry.
Between the Vietnam War and the early 1990s, the PLAAF's flying
consisted mostly of large numbers of near-obsolete Soviet planes.
The main mission scenario under consideration by the PLAAF during
this time was to support the
PLA in defending China against a
massive Soviet tank invasion. Under the doctrine of
People's War, Chinese air strategy involved
large numbers of short-range low-technology fighters.
Modernization program
In the late 1980s, the primary mission of the PLAAF was the defense
of the mainland, and most aircraft were assigned to this role. A
smaller number of
ground
attack and
bomber units were assigned to
interdiction and possibly close
air
support, and some bomber units could be used for
nuclear delivery. The force had
only limited
military airlift and
reconnaissance capabilities.
In the
early 1990s, the PLAAF began a program of modernization, motivated
by the collapse of the Soviet Union
, as well as the possibility of military conflict
with the Republic of
China
(Taiwan
) and perhaps
also involving the United States. This process began
with the acquisition of Su-27 in the
early 1990s and the development of various fourth-generation
aircraft, including the domestic J-10,
and the JF-17 in collaboration with Pakistan
. The
PLAAF also strove to improve its pilot training and continued to
retire obsolete aircraft. This resulted in a reduction of the
overall number of aircraft in the PLAAF with a concurrent increase
in quality of its air fleet.
The 21st century has seen the continuation of the modernization
program with China's huge economic growth. It acquired 76
Su-30MKK's from 2000 to 2003, and 24
upgraded
Su-30MK2's in 2004. It also
produced around 100
J-11 from 2002
onwards and bought 3 batches (at a total of 76) of the Su-27SK/UBK.
Production of the
J-10 fighter began in
2002 with an estimated 100 aircraft in service currently. The PLAAF
also began developing its own
tanker
aircraft, which it previously lacked, by modifying old
H-6 bomber (Chinese copy of
Tu-16 Badger). In 2005 it announced plans to
buy approximately 30
IL-76 transport
planes and 8
Il-78 tanker planes,
which would greatly increase its troop airlift capability and offer
extended range to many aircraft, though as of 2009 this deal is
still on hold.
Predictions of PLAAF future fleet will consist of large quantities
of J-10 and J-11 as its main force, and JH-7A as the PLAAF backbone
precision strike fighter. JF-17/FC-1 if inducted by the Chinese
airforce will fulfill the previous roles of the J-7 and J-8, while
future stealth fighter projects entering service will be inducted
into the air fleet in small numbers, assigned to elite PLAAF
selected pilots. The transport fleet will comprise of Y-9 medium
range transport aircraft, along with the Soviet IL-76, and heavy
transport aircraft similar to the USAF C-17 that China is currently
developing. Its helicopter fleet will comprise of Z-15 troop
transporter, and the Z-10 attack helicopter for its ground forces.
AWACS/AEW will be refined variants of existing service fleet of
KJ-2000 and KJ-200, with UAV/UCAV in early stages of service in the
PLAAF.
Organization
- Headquarters Air Force (HqAF)
The HqAF consists of four departments: Command, Political,
Logistic, and Equipment, which mirrors the four general departments
of the PLA.
- *Military region air forces (MRAF)
- **Division (Fighter, Attack, Bomber)
- ***Regiment
- ****Squadron
The PLAAF typically uses the system of threes in its organization
at Division level and below, i.e. 3 Regiments per Division, 3
Squadrons per Regiment, and so on. There are also Independent
Regiments within the MRAFs. There are also two Airborne Corps (the
15th Airborne Corps, and the
16th) under direct control of PLAAF Headquarters.
PLAAF Order of
Battle
Other
The
August 1st is the
PLAAF only aerobatics team and was formed in 1998.
Leadership
The PLA Air Force has had 10 commanders and 11 political commissars
since its inception, including three political commissars who later
became commanders.
Deputy Commanders:
Deputy Political Commissars:
- Chief of Staff: Yang Guohai
- Director of Political Department: Wang
Xiaolong
Aircraft Inventory
Current Aircraft Inventory (includes PLANAF aircraft)
| Aircraft |
| Origin |
| Type |
| Versions |
| In service |
| Notes |
| Image |
|
|
Fighter
Aircraft |
|
| Chengdu J-10 Vigorous Dragon |
|
| multirole fighter |
J-10
J-10S
J-10B
|
| ~168 |
| Chinese domestic 4-4.5th-generation multi-role fighter with
technology implemented from cancelled J-9 project.J-10B; 4.5th
generation multi-role fighter refined variant of the 4th generation
J-10A. |
 |
|
| JF-17 Thunder[46378] |
|
| multi-role fighter |
JF-17
JF-17S
|
| 4 Prototypes (Under evaluation in China, and in service in
Pakistan) |
| Joint produced 4th-generation fighter jet, reportedly acquired
by the PLAAF to replace its J-7s and
Q-5s. Joint project China and
Pakistan[46379] |
 |
|
| Shenyang J-8II Finback |
|
| Interceptor |
J-8B
J-8D
J-8H
J-8F
JZ-8
JZ-8F
|
| ~288-315 |
| Chinese domestic 3rd generation interceptor, later variants
possessing 4th generation capabilities. |
 |
|
| Chengdu J-7 Airguard |
|
| Interceptor |
J-7I
J-7II
J-7D/E
J-7G
JJ-7
J-7GB
|
| ~599-720 |
| Chinese domestic 3rd generation interceptor derived from the
Soviet MiG-21 [46380] |
 |
|
| Sukhoi Su-30MKK Flanker-G |
|
| air-superiority multi-role fighter |
Su-30 total
Su-30MKK
Su-30MK2
|
100
72
24
|
| Russian developed 4th generation multi-role fighter, developed
according to PLAAF requirements. |
|
| Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker |
|
| air-superiority multi-role fighter |
Su-27 total
Su-27SK
Su-27UBK
|
76
34
42
|
| Russian bought 4th generation Su-27 air superiority
fighter[46381] |
 |
|
| Shenyang J-11 |
|
| air-superiority |
J-11 total
J-11A
J-11B
J-11BS
|
~120
~96
~24
|
| Chinese 4-4.5th generation air-superiority fighter originally
developed from the Sukhoi Su-27
airframe. J-11A production is the base model of the 4th generation
Su-27 manufactured from supplied kits from Russia with Chinese
components, while the 4.5th generation J-11B is a modernised
indigenous multi-role fighter developed in China using the Su-27
airframe.[46382] 200 J-11A licensed for production, ~96 J-11A
are in service, with ~24 J-11B serving along side the J-11A. |
| - |
|
|
Bomber
Aircraft |
|
| JH-7 Flying Leopard |
|
| fighter-bomber |
JH-7
JH-7A
|
| ~133-182 |
| Chinese domestic 4th generation strike bomber. |
 |
|
| Xian H-6 |
|
| bomber |
H-6
HY-6
|
| ~162-180 |
| Chinese produced Tupolev Tu-16
Soviet bomber with modernized Chinese electronics and weapons
[46383] |
 |
|
|
Ground
Attack |
|
| Q-5 Fantan |
|
| ground attack bomber |
Q-5A
Q-5I
Q-51A
Q-5II
Q-5D
Q-5E/F
|
| ~224-252 |
| Chinese domestic 3rd generation ground attack fighter derived
from the Shenyang J-6. Steadily being
phased out, and replaced with Xian JH-7A
Flounder[46384] |
 |
|
|
Trainer
Aircraft |
|
| L-15 Falcon |
|
| trainer |
|
| At least 2 prototypes |
| Chinese domestic advanced lead-in trainer, and light weight
fighter (LIFT)[46385] |
 |
|
| JL-9 Mountain Eagle |
|
| trainer |
|
|
| Chinese domestic trainer, and light weight fighter [46386] |
 |
|
| JL-8 Karakorum |
|
| trainer |
| K-8 |
200
(400 JL-8s were ordered by PLAAF and PLAN). |
| Chinese domestic basic trainer. |
 |
|
| JL-7 Baby Eagle[46387] |
|
| trainer |
|
| 300 planned[46388] |
| Chinese domestic trainer |
|
|
| Nanchang CJ-6 |
|
| trainer |
| CJ-6A |
| ~400 |
|
 |
|
|
Transports |
|
| Xian Y-14 |
|
| transport |
|
|
| Twin-engine turboprop transport |
|
| Harbin Y-12 |
|
| transport |
|
| 2 |
|
 |
|
| Harbin Y-11 |
|
| transport |
|
| 15 |
|
|
| Shaanxi Y-9 |
|
| Multi-purpose transport |
|
|
| under development |
|
| Shaanxi Y-8 |
|
| Multi-purpose transport |
|
| 80+ |
| Y-8 design derived from the Soviet Antonov An-12 short-medium range
transport |
.jpg/180px-Yun_8_-_KJ-2000_-_Chinese_domestic_airborne_warning_and_control_system_(AWACS).jpg) |
|
| Xian Y-7 |
|
| transport |
|
| 23 |
| Based on the Antonov An-24; Y-7H
based on Antonov An-26 (Cold War era)
[46389] |
|
| Shijiazhuang Y-5 |
|
| utility transport |
|
| 300 |
| Based on the Soviet Antonov An-2,
made since 1950s. A light utility, transport aircraft mostly on
reserve (Cold War era) |
|
| Ilyushin Il-76 |
|
| transport |
| Il-76MD |
| 14 (30 more to be delivered) |
| Soviet Ilyushin Il-76
medium-range transport |
|
|
| Bombardier Challenger
600 |
|
| VIP transport |
| CL 601 |
| 12 |
|
|
| Tupolev Tu-154 |
|
| VIP transport |
| Tu-154M |
| 16 |
| some converted for electronic warfare |
|
|
Attack
Helicopters |
|
| CAIC WZ-10 |
|
| multirole attack helicopter |
|
| 6 Prototypes as of 2006-Evaluation phase |
| Chinese domestic attack helicopter |
 |
|
| Harbin WZ-9 |
|
| Attack heli |
|
| 100+ |
| Chinese domestic attack helicopter variant of Z-9. |
|
| Change Z-11W |
|
| Attack heli |
|
| 20 |
| Chinese domestic attack helicopter variant of Z-11 |
|
| Aérospatiale SA 342
Gazelle |
|
| attack helicopter |
| AS 342 |
| 8 |
| French bought attack helicopter |
|
|
Transport
Helicopters |
|
| Changhe Z-11 |
|
| utility helicopter |
|
| 20 |
| Chinese helicopter influenced by Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil |
|
| Harbin Z-9 |
|
| transport helicopter |
|
| 100+ |
| Chinese license produced Eurocopter SA 365 Dauphin |
|
| Changhe Z-8 |
|
| transport helicopter |
|
| 40+ |
| Chinese licensed produced Aérospatiale SA 321 Super
Frelon |
|
| Harbin Z-6 |
|
| transport/utility helicopter |
|
|
| upgrade of the Harbin Z-5. |
|
| Harbin Z-5 |
|
| transport/utility helicopter |
|
|
| no longer in production |
|
| Mil Mi-17 |
|
| transport helicopter |
|
| 240 |
| Soviet bought Mi-17 |
|
| Mil Mi-8 |
|
| transport helicopter |
|
| 20 |
| Soviet bought Mi-8 helicopter |
|
| Eurocopter AS 332 Cougar |
|
| transport helicopter |
| AS 332 |
| 6 |
| French Eurocopter Cougar helicopter |
|
| Sikorsky S-70 Black
Hawk |
|
| transport helicopter |
| S-70C |
| 24 |
| American bought civilian S-70 helicopter |
|
|
AEW |
|
| KJ-2000 |
|
| AWAC / AEW&C |
|
| 4+ |
| Uses IL-76 airframe |
 |
|
| KJ-200 |
|
| AEW&C |
|
|
| Uses Y-8F600 airframe |
|
| Y-8 AWACS |
|
| AEW&C |
|
|
|
|
| Y-8J AEW |
|
| AEW&C |
|
|
|
|
|
UAV and UCAV |
|
| CH-3 |
|
| stealth attack UCAV |
|
|
|
|
| CH-1 [46390] |
|
| stealth attack UCAV |
|
|
|
|
| WZ-2000 |
|
| stealth attack UCAV |
| WZ-2000B |
| unknown |
| a stealth attack UCAV developed by China. |
|
| Xianglong
Unmanned Reconnaissance Aerial Vehicle |
|
| Stealth long range URAV |
|
| unknown |
| long-range high-altitude URAV developed by China. First
unveiled in the Zhuhai Airshow.[46391] |
|
| Yilong UCAV |
|
| long range attack UCAV |
|
| unknown |
| Attack UCAV developed by China. First unveiled in the Zhuhai
Airshow.[46392] |
|
| PW-2 |
|
| stealth UAV |
|
|
|
|
| TF-10 |
|
| stealth UAV |
|
|
|
|
| TF-8 |
|
| stealth UAV |
|
|
|
|
| SH-1 UAV |
|
| long range UAV |
|
| unknown |
| UAV developed by China. First unveiled in the Zhuhai
Airshow.[46393] |
|
| Dufeng II UAV |
|
| long range UAV |
|
| unknown |
| UAV developed by China. First unveiled in the Zhuhai
Airshow.[46394] |
|
| WZ-5 |
|
| long range UAV |
|
| unknown |
| long-range high-altitude UAV developed by China. First unveiled
in the Zhuhai Airshow.[46395] |
|
| IAI Harpy |
|
| UCAV |
|
|
|
|
| WZ-5 |
|
| UAV |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-206 |
|
| URAV |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-207 |
|
| URAV |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-104 |
|
| URAV |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-105 |
|
| URAV |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-15 |
|
| URAV |
|
|
|
|
| TJ-1 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| Chengdu J-7 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-9 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-7 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| Shenyang J-5 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| ASN-2 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
| CK-1 |
|
| target drone |
|
|
|
|
|
Others |
|
| Ilyushin Il-78 |
|
| aerial re-fueling tanker |
|
| 4 |
Many of the main types of PLAAF aircraft have been specially
modified and carry no clear distinct designation. The following
types of modifications have been reported:
- Harbin H-5: A number of these older
aircraft had been modified as HD-5 aircraft and operated with
electronic countermeasures suites. They are being phased out.
- Ilyushin Il-76: One of the many
platforms which the Chinese have attempted to use for an airborne
early warning aircraft under the KJ-2000 program.
- Shaanxi Y-8: A large number of
trials and programs have made use of this utilitarian airframe:
- A few have been modified for electronic countermeasures as a
replacement for the Harbin HD-5 being phased out.
- 2 or more have been given a ventral canoe housing an electronic
support measures array beneath the forward fuselage, as well as an
antenna farm on the loading ramp.
- 2 have been included in the KJ-200 airborne early warning
program.
- 2 have been modified similarly to the KJ-200 program for air
surveillance and command.
- Some
have been given the British
 Marconi Electronic Systems Argus-2000 airborne early warning
system
- 4 have been modified as maritime patrol aircraft
- 2 have been modified for electronic intelligence gathering,
with a variety of electronic equipment.
- 1 has been modified as an airborne command post, recognizable
by a farm of antennas above the cockpit.
- 1 is being tested with cheek mounted radar for battlefield
surveillance.
- 1 is operated as a radar test bed, nominally in civil
guise.
- 1 is operated as an avionics test bed, nominally in civil
guise.
- Some of the Y-8 aircraft in service are of the recent Y-8-F600
modernized variant.
- Shenyang J-5: While the Mikoyan MiG-17 and the locally built
derivative, the J-5, have been retired
from PLAAF service, some have been converted to drones and UAVs for
various purposes. [46396]
- Tupolev Tu-154: Two or more of
these airliners have had three bulges built underneath their
fuselages for use in the electronic support measures role. Another
handful have been modified for electronic intelligence
gathering.
- Xian Y-7: At least one was modified for
maritime patrol work under the name Fearless Albatross and
participated in the 2nd half of the joint Sino-USA maritime search
and rescue exercise held near Chinese coast. Another example is
operated by the government as an avionics testbed in civil guise. A
few may also have been modified as training aircraft.
- Shenyang J-6: Shengyang J-6
officially retired from service at 2006,but it was reported few
JZ-6 reconnaissance examples still in limited active service until
2009.
Future aircraft
China continues to develop its aircraft technology. China is
undergoing a massive upgrade of Air Force technology. While few
details are available regarding aircraft development programs due
to security, some reported efforts include:
|
| Aircraft |
| Origin |
| Type |
| Versions |
| In service |
| Notes |
|
|
Projects Under Development |
|
| Chengdu J-10B |
|
| 4.5th generation stealth fighter |
|
|
| An upgrade to the J-10A,featuring modifications in electronics
and aerodynamics. J-10B utilises DSI, probable increased use of
composite materials, further reduced RCS, IRST, new HUD, stretched
tail fin & fin stabilizers with MAWS and ECM integrated, and a
stretched nose, indicating a possible new radar. |
|
| Shenyang
J-11C |
|
| carrier-borne fighter |
|
|
| name for a carrier-launched fighter based on the J-11B |
|
| Shenyang J-XX |
|
| 5th generation stealth fighter |
|
|
| name for single or multiple 5th generation stealth fighter
programmes |
|
| Chengdu J-13 |
|
| 5th generation stealth fighter |
|
|
| Fifth generation stealth fighter being developed by Chengdu Aircraft Design
Institute. It is competing for the J-XX. Failed in competition for J-XX
project. |
|
| Shenyang J-14 |
|
| 5th generation stealth fighter |
|
|
| Fifth generation stealth fighter assumed to be a parallel
project with the J-XX |
|
| Shenyang J-15 |
|
| stealth carrier-borne fighter |
|
|
| name for a semi-stealth carrier-launched fighter |
|
| Shenyang DarkSword |
|
| stealth air superiority UCAV |
|
|
| stealthy, long-range, high speed, air superiority UCAV being developed by
Shenyang. Model shown at Zhuhai airshow. |
|
| Zhanying (Combat Eagle) |
|
| stealth strike UCAV |
|
|
| a stealth strike UCAV with forward swept wings, with similar
niche to X-45. Model shown at Zhuhai airshow. |
|
| Scan Eagle |
|
| stealth spy UAV |
|
|
| a stealth spy UAV |
|
| Yak-152K |
|
| trainer |
|
| at least 1 prototype |
| an advanced trainer developed by China and Russia |
|
| Harbin Z-15 |
|
| transport helicopter |
|
|
| under development[46397] |
|
| Y-20 |
|
| transport |
|
|
under development
Retired aircraft
- Former aircraft operated by the People's Liberation Army Air
Force (PLAAF):
Gallery
Image:KampfflugzeugF-8China.jpg|Shenyang J-8Image:Chinese Su-27.JPG|Shenyang J-11
Image:Surface-to-Air Missile Coverage over the Taiwan
Strait.png|Surface-to-Air Missile Coverage over the Taiwan Strait.
Note: This map depicts notional coverage provided by China’s SA-10,
SA-20 SAM systems, as well as the soon-to-be acquired S-300PMU2.
Actual coverage would be non-contiguous and dependent upon precise
deployment sites.
Markings
The markings of the PLAAF are a red star in front of a red band, it
is slightly similar to the insignia of the
United States Air Force. The
Red star contains the Chinese
characters for eight and one, representing August 1, 1927, the date of the
formation of the PLA. PLAAF aircraft carry these markings on the
fins as well.
Citations
-
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1991/plaaf-appf.htm#_edn31;
http://www.rand.org/pubs/conf_proceedings/CF182/CF182.ch9.pdf p.
354 n840 and p. 357, n847.
- "http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/default.asp
- ""World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book
2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007.
- "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book
2007, Aviation Week & Space
Technology, January 15 2007.
-
http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2007/10/17/218683/chinas-dark-sword-unmanned-combat-air-vehicle-programme-raises.html
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