Politics is a process by which groups of people
make
decisions. The term is
generally applied to behavior within civil
governments, but politics has been observed in
all human group interactions, including
corporate,
academic and
religious institutions. It consists of
"social relations involving authority or power" and refers to the
regulation of a political unit, and to the methods and tactics used
to formulate and apply
policy.
The word "Politics" comes from the Greek word πολἰς ("
polis") meaning
city-state.
The Greek word πολίτἰκος "Politikos" describes anything concerning
the state or city affairs. In Latin, this was "politicus" and in
French "politique". Thus it became "politics" in
Middle English (see the
Concise Oxford Dictionary).
History
From a historical perspective, societies in need of government have
moved from the primitive to the patriarchal state and finally to
the military, the real politics of modern times. The origin and
development of government institutions is the most visible subject
for the study of Politics and its history.
Primitive Societies
Regardless of how civilized the world is, there are still large
numbers of people living in the most primitive conditions. The most
important of these because most scientifically studied are the
"aborigines" of Australia. The
scientific study of the aboriginal Australian forms the basis of
what is best known of primitive societies in general.
The aboriginal Australian understands neither the cultivation of
the land nor the rearing of sheep and cattle. The dog is their only
"domestic" animal. They take shelter in caves and in primitive
huts. They have no food but the natural products of the earth. They
know a very primitive form of fire-making and their cooking is very
crude. They have no knowledge of metal work. Their weapons are the
flint-headed spear, the axe and the wooden
boomerang. They wear no clothing at all. Living
like this on the point of starvation may have gone on for thousands
of years. It could be said that
isolation
is the only single factor in the aboriginal Australian state of
stagnation.
The
Totem group is the real social unit of the
aboriginal Australian. The Totem is not an Australian word but it
is generally accepted to designate the name of an institution which
is found everywhere among primitive people. The Totem group is
primarily a group of people distinguished by the sign of a natural
object, such as an animal or tree, who may not intermarry with one
another - this is the first rule of primitive social organization;
its origin is lost in antiquity ("
Alcheringa") but its object is certainly to
prevent the intermarriage of close relatives. Marriage takes place
between men and women of differen Totems; the husband belongs to
all the women of his wife's totem and the wife belongs to all the
men of the husband's totem at the same time that a communal
marriage is established between the men and women of the two
different Totems - the men and women being of the same generation.
This presents a most valuable objective lesson in
social history. There are no unmarried
couples; marriage for them is part of the natural order into which
they are born.
The ceremonies are kept secret and are directed by a "Birraark" or
sorcerer, usually an old man. The candidates are instructed in the
history of their Totem and on the power of the Birraark. They are
initiated into the mystery of the Totem, usually accompanied by an
ordeal such as circumcision and then they are tattooed with a seal
of identity that marks them for a given Totem and a given
generation in that Totem. In this way is constructed the simple
system of relationship of the aboriginal Australian. The mother
takes a predominant role, for descent is almost always reckoned
through females. Parent, child, brother and sister are the only
recognized relationships. Rudimentary as this system may appear to
be, it is widely spread among the
Malay Archipelago and prevails widely
among primitive peoples everywhere.
The Totem serves the purpose of forbidding intermarriage between
close relatives and will deal destruction if this rule is not
strictly enforced. These are the rudiments of two of the most
important factors in human progress:
Religion and
Law. The
rudimentary notion of Law is very specific about what is prohibited
or
Taboo. Primitive people do not recognize
any duties towards strangers unless there is an abundant food
supply in a given area. It is a sure sign of progress if the same
area is able to maintain an ever larger number of people. In his
own milieu, close to nature, the savage outwits the civilized man
but both are subject to
natural
law.
Lewis H. Morgan author of
Ancient Society considers the
American Indians to be
the link between the primitive and patriarchal state of
society.
Patriarchal Societies
All patriarchal societies are known by certain characteristic
features:
1).- Male kinship is prevalent. Men are counted as kin because they
are descended from the same male ancestor.
2).- Marriage is permanent. It is not until one woman is married to
one man that certainty of fatherhood appears in society but it is
not a general rule of patriarchal society for polygamy does exist
in the earlier stages of social development.
3).- Paternal authority is the ruling principle of the social
order. In ancient Rome, the
patria
potestas extended to all descendants of one living male
ancestor; it comprised control and punishment not to mention
questions of life and death.
These features of the development of the patriarchal state of
society are as common among the
Jews as among
the
Arabs, among the
Aryans as among the
Dravidians and even among the
Germanic and
Celtic
races.
The patriarchal state of society consists of two stages,
tribe and
clan. The tribe is a
large group of hundreds of members who descend from one common male
ancestor, sometimes from a fictitious character satisfying the
etiquette that descent from the male is
the only basis of society. The clan, on the other hand, is a
smaller group reaching back into the past for only four generations
or so to a common well-known male ancestor. The clan always breaks
down into smaller units when its limit is reached. According to the
Scottish historian
W. F. Skene in volumen 3
of
Celtic Scotland, the tribe or larger unit is the
oldest. When the tribe breaks down, clans are formed. When the clan
system breaks down, it leaves the
households or
families as
independent units. Finally, with the withering away of patriarchal
society, the family is dissolved and the
individual comes into existence.
The State
The origin of the
State is to be found in the
development of the
art of warfare.
Historically speaking, there is not the slightest difficulty in
proving that all political communities of the modern type owe their
existence to successful warfare. As a result the new states are
forced to organize on military principles. The life of the new
community is military allegiance. The military by nature is
competitive.
The stablishment of the western State is coincident to the spread
of Christianity as a universal religion. Though Christianity in its
early beginnings was a message to the meek and lowly, its great
conquests in northern and western Europe were due to the conversion
of kings and princes not to mention the conquest of American Indian
civilizations. Under the cry of "one church one nation", England
became a nation with church and state in intimate alliance.
Of the institutions by which the state is ruled, that of
kingship stands foremost until the French
Revolution put an end to the "
divine right of kings". Nevertheless,
kingship is perhaps the most succesful institution of Politics.
However, the first kings were not institutions but individuals. The
earliest kings were successful militarily. They were men not only
of great military genius but also great administrators. Kingship
becomes an institution through heredity. However,
constitutional monarchies are not
successful at all.
Elective
monarchy is one of the
chimeras of
political
Utopia. Chosen by an electorate,
the best they become is obedient
puppets
like the newly elected president of a Republic, obedient to whoever
would pull the strings
behind the
scenes.
The king rules his kingdom with the aid of his
Council, without it he could not hold his
territores. The Council is the king's
master
mind. The Council is the germ of
constitutional government. Long
before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered
invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:
1).- Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity.
2).- Preserving the traditions of the social order.
3).- Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal
authority.
4).- Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action
than a single individual such as the king.
The greatest of the king's subordinates, the
earls in England and Scotland, the
dukes and
counts in the
Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages
war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an
established kingdom exacts
tribute. One of
the functions of the Council is to keep the conffers of the king
full. Another is the satisfaction of
military service and the establishment of
lordships by the king to satisfy the task
of collecting taxes and soldiers.
The State and Property be it public or
private
No political institution is of greater importance than the
institution of
property. Property is the
right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the
benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a
power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the
exercise of a right is opposed to public trust. Nevertheless, a
right is really the creation of public trust, past, present or
future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of
property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of
an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is
appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the final
stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In
the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The State
began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with
it came
inheritance. With landed
property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in
modern times, the "lord of the land" of long ago becomes the
landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always
the same, then there is of course no evolution of property
whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in
population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land
owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In
industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in
towns which have grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord
has reaped an enormous profit. Towards the latter part of the
Middle Ages in Europe, both the State - the State would use the
instrument of
confiscation for the
first time to satisfy a debt - and the Church - the Church
succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land - were allied
against the village community to displace the small landlord and
they were successful to the extent that today, the village has
become the ideal of the
individualist,
a place in which every man "does what he wills with his own." The
State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the
institution of property be it public or private.
The State and the Justice system
As a military institution, the State is concerned with the
allegiance of its subjects. Betrayal or defiance
of allegiance is a risk to its national security. Thus arises the
law of
treason. Criminal acts in general,
breaking the peace and treason make up the whole of
criminal law enforced by the State as
distinguished from the law enforced by private individuals. State
justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and
ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity.
One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts
over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill
is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal
courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. The most
innovative proceeding introduced by the royal courts was
trial by jury becoming not only popular but
also the bulwark of liberty. By the time of the
Reformation, with the separation of Church and
State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in
dealing with the business of administering justice.
The State and the Legislative system
The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies.
That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the
Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in
the
Gentile cities of the West. This tribal
law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itsel to people
in the patriarchal stage of society, it was
custom or
observance
sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors.
The intolerable state of affairs in the 10th century in France,
Germany, Spain and England where every little town had its own laws
and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no
national law till the end of the 18th century, came to an end
thanks to three great agencies that helped to create the modern
system of law and legislation:
1).- Records. From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what
are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the
patriarchal is becoming the State. They are due almost universally
to one cause: the desire of the king to know the custom of his
subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but
statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a
knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes
imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point
to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written
text can change by addition with every new edition.
2).- Law Courts. By taking some general rule which seemed to be
common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English
common law was modelled after such a practice so that the law
became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why
in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later
is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the
administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest
moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a
common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every case to
questions of fact. At first the
jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a purely
local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to
pass: the province of the judge and the province of the jury.
3).- Fictions. Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the
people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and
imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known
fact that people will accept a change in the form of a fiction
while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the
open.
Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When
progress and development is rapid, the faster method of
political representation is
adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in
the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the
same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress
of commerce sprang
Parliament all over
Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely
representative or homogenous for the nobility and the clergy. The
clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all
Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the
Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule
of
celibacy and cut themselves from
domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they
refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had
already paid it to the
Pope. Since the main
object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect
money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to
Parliament. The Church did not like it but in most cases they had
to come.
The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the
states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it
was not a popular institution mainly because it meant
taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the
Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their
existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact
that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased
to exist. The notion that Parliaments were the result of a
democratic movement cannot be supported by historial facts.
Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely
concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability
rather than a privilige. It is not uncommon that an institution
created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were
asked to contribute with large sums of money began to
petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would
turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in
exchange for money. However, there were two kinds of petitions, one
private and the other public and it was from this last that laws
were adopted or
legislation originated.
The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial
integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with
public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even
to the present day, this has always been the basis of all
successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by
the State.
In the early days of political representation, the
majority did not necessarily carry the day and
there was very little need for contested
elections but by the beginning of the 15th century,
a seat in Parliament was something to be cherished. Historically
speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the
adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the
adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another
institution of modern times: the
party
system. The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery
that pits at least two political candidates against each other for
the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation
interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides
effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an
outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated
people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government.
These three institutions: political representation, majority rule
and the party system are the basic components of modern political
machinery; they are applicable to both central and local
governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in
themselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose.
The State and the Executive system
The Administration.- This is one of the most
difficult aspects of government. In the enactment and enforcement
of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards
to
administration the reason being
that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and
enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic,
religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by
government.
Originally, the State was a military organization. For many years,
it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a
small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was
basically rule by force over a larger mass of people. Slowly,
however, the people gained political representation for none can
really be said to be a member of the State without the right of
having a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic
functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining
peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in
the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State
develops means of
communication.
Historically, the "king's highway" was laid down and maintained for
the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to
commerce. In almost all countries, the State
jealously maintains the control of the means of communication and
special freedoms such as those delineated in the
First
Amendment to the United States Constitution are rather limited.
The State's original function of maintaining law and order within
its borders gave rise to
police
administration which is a branch of the dispensation of
Justice but on its preventive side, police
jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which
distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work. In the
curfew, the State shows early in history the
importance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to
maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising
of
revenue. This led eventually to modern
State
socialism. It was then useful to the
State to establish a
standard of
weights and measures so that value
could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired a
monopoly of
coinage.
The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates
from the 15th century, when
the Plague or
Black Death decimated most of
Europe.
The invariable policy of the State has always being to break down
all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the
individual. This was the policy until
Adam
Smith's
The Wealth of
Nations was published promoting a strong public reaction
against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the
issue of the poor or the State relief of the
indigent. The State, of course, did not create
poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with it
such as the village, the church and the
guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for
the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law
Report of 1834 showed that
communism ran
rampant in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries
such as the
colonies of the
British Empire, the State has refused to take
responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty in spite of
the fact, that the poor classes lean heavily towards State
socialism.
Recognizing the great power of the State, it is only natural that
in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the
people should invoke general State aid.
Political representation has helped to shape State administration.
When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of
arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that
extent is the increase of State activity popular. There are no hard
and fast rules to limit State administration but it is a fallacy to
believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is
necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in
modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even
where "universal suffrage" prevails, the fact remains that an
extension of State administration means an increased interference
of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is
admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is
sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is
necessarily good. Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of
State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must
necessarily prove more effective in their action than
private enterprise. Herein lies the basic
difference between
Public and
Business Administration; the
first deals with the
public weal while
the second deals basically in
profit but both
require a great deal of
education and
ethical conduct to avoid the mishaps
inherent in the relationship not only of business and labor but
also the State and the Administration.
The Varieties of political experience
According to Aristotle, States are classified into
monarchies,
aristocracies and
democracies. Due to an increase in knowledge of
the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned.
Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the
best if the best is considered to be the one that is most
appropriate under the circumstances. All States are varieties of a
single type, the sovereign State. All the
Great Powers of the modern world rule on the
principle of
sovereignty. Sovereign
power may be vested on an individual as in an autocratic government
or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.
Constitutions are written documents
that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of
government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is
also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is
continually being written by the Legislative branch of government;
this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the
circumstances determines the form of government that is most
appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential.
England
did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but after the Restoration abandoned them to be taken
up later by the American Colonies
after their emancipation and then
France
after the Revolution and the rest of Europe
including the European colonies.
There are two forms of government, one a strong central government
as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient
divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less
bureaucratic. These two forms helped to shape the
Federal government, first in Switzerland,
then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany
in 1870 and in the 20th century,
Australia. The Federal States introduced the new
principle of
agreement or
contract. Compared to a
federation, a
confederation singular weakness is that it
lacks
judicial power. In the
American Civil War, the contention of the
Confederate States that a State could
secede
from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the
Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary
branches.
According to professor
A. V. Dicey in
An
Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the
essential features of a federal constitution are: a) A written
supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the
jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A
distibution of power between the Federal and State governments and
c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the
Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent
of both the executive and legislative branches.
As an academic discipline
Political science, the study of
politics, examines the acquisition and application of
power and "power corrupts". Related areas of
study include
political
philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic
of public behaviour,
political
economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the
relationships between politics and the economy and the governance
of the two, and
public
administration, which examines the practices of
governance.
The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States
was the chair of history and political science at
Columbia University, first occupied by
Prussian émigré
Francis Lieber in
1857.
Spectra
Left-right politics
Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide
politics into
left wing and
right wing politics, often also using the idea of
center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and
left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used
by
Aristotle or
Hobbes, for instance), and dates from the
French Revolution era, when those members
of the
National Assembly who
supported the
republic, the common people
and a
secular society sat on the
left and supporters of the
monarchy,
aristocratic privilege and the
Church sat on the right.
The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over
the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of
the
Communist Manifesto by
Karl Marx and
Frederick Engels in 1848. The
Manifesto suggested a course of action for a
proletarian revolution to overthrow the
bourgeois society and abolish private property,
in the belief that this would lead to a
classless and
stateless society.
The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between
different countries and at different times, but generally speaking,
it can be said that the right wing often values
tradition and
capitalism
while the left wing often values
reform and
socialism, with the center seeking a
balance between the two such as with
social democracy or
regulated capitalism.
According to
Norberto Bobbio, one of
the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in
attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards
most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural
inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as
utopian or authoritarian.
Some ideologies, notably
Christian
Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics;
according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of
ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views
held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider
framework of moral and Christian principles." Movements which claim
or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include
Fascist Third-position economic politics in Italy,
Gaullism in France,
Peronism in Argentina, and
National Action Politics in
Mexico.
Authoritarian-libertarian politics
Authoritarianism and
libertarianism refer to the amount of
individual
freedom each person
possesses in that society relative to the state. One author
describes authoritarian political systems as those where
"individual
rights and goals are subjugated
to group goals, expectations and conformities", while a libertarian
political system is one in which individual
rights and
civil
liberties are paramount. More extreme than libertarians are
anarchists, who argue for the total
abolition of
government, while the most
extreme authoritarians are
totalitarians who support state control over
all aspects of
society.
For instance,
classical
liberalism (also known as
laissez-faire liberalism, or, in much of
the world, simply
liberalism) is a doctrine stressing
individual freedom and
limited
government. This includes the importance of human rationality,
individual
property rights,
free markets,
natural
rights, the protection of
civil
liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and
individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of
John Locke,
Adam
Smith,
David Hume,
David Ricardo,
Voltaire,
Montesquieu
and others. According to the libertarian
Institute for Humane Studies,
"the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that
individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered
by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as
necessary.'"
World Politics
The 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not
only the rise and fall of the
Third
Reich but also the rise and fall of
communism. The development of the
Atomic bomb gave the United States the victory
in
World War II. Later, the development
of the
Hydrogen bomb became the
ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The
United Nations has served as a forum for
peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. "The invention of
nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an
instrument for achieving political ends." Although an all-out final
nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, "
nuclear blackmail" comes into question not
only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national
sovereignity.
On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at
the brink of nuclear war during the October Cuban missile crisis from the
implementation of U.S.
vs U.S.S.R.
nuclear
blackmail policy.
Former President
Ronald Reagan was
horrified by
nuclear weapons and
believed in the probable existence of life on other planets. For
the President, the fantasy of an invasion from outer space that
would force the nations of the world to unite against a common
enemy was strong enough to convince anyone that mankind could unite
in a common interest such as world peace. At their first meeting in
Geneva in 1985, president Reagan brought up the subject of an
invasion from outer space to
Gorbachev.
General Powell was convinced Reagan
peace proposal to Gorbachev was inspired by the 1951
science-fiction film,
The Day the Earth
Stood Still. On September 21, 1987, Reagan told the
General Assembly
of the United Nations: "...I occasionally think how quickly our
differences worldwide would vanish if we were facing an alien
threat from outside this world."
9/11
President
George W. Bush declared America's war on terrorism as the aftermath of the attack on the
World Trade
Center
on September 11, 2001. What came to be known
as the Bush Doctrine, which was
originally the policy voiced by President Bush after 9/11 that essentially there is no difference between
the terrorists and the countries that harbor them, would rally the
international community
behind the United States in its war against the Taliban in Afghanistan
harboring Osama bin
Laden and other Al-Qaeda terrorists but
would distance the same community in the U.S. invasion of Iraq
.
See also
Lists
Related topics
References
- Definition of politics from die.net
- Politics (definition)@Everything2.com
- Definition of politics from "The Free Dictionary"
- cite book |last=Jenks |first=Edward |title=A history of
politics |pages=112-124 |quote=We are so accustomed to look upon
the administration of justice as an inevitable duty of the
State...
- Bobbio, Norberto, "Left and Right: The
Significance of a Political Distinction" (translated by Allan
Cameron), 1997, University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 0226062465
- Roberts and Hogwood, European Politics Today,
Manchester University Press,
1997
- Ian Adams, Political Ideology Today (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2001), 20.
- What Is Libertarian?, Institute for Humane
Studies
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