Racial segregation is the separation of different
racial group
in daily life, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a
water fountain, using a
washroom, attending
school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a
home. Segregation may be mandated by law or exist through social
norms. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from
discrimination in hiring and in the rental
and sale of housing to certain races to
vigilante violence (such as
lynchings, e.g.) Generally, a situation that arises
when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do
business with members of their own race would usually be described
as
separation or
de facto separation of the races
rather than
segregation.
In the United States
, legal segregation was required in some states and
came with "anti-miscegenation
laws" (prohibitions against interracial marriage).There were
laws passed against segregation in the USA in the 1960s.
Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in
hierarchical situations, such as allowing a
person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another
race. Segregation can involve
spatial separation of the races, and/or
mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and
hospitals by people of different races.
Historical cases
Historically various conquerors—among them Asian
Mongols, African
Bantu, and
American
Aztecs—have practiced discrimination
involving the segregation of subject races. Racial segregation has
appeared in all parts of the world where there are multiracial
communities.
Indo-Aryan India
3,000–8,000 years ago,
Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups from
Europe, the Near East, Anatolia, and the Caucasus migrated to
India. According to 19th century British historians, it was these
"Aryans" who and established the
caste
system, an
elitist form of social
organization that (according to the British) separated the
"light-skinned" Indo-Aryan conquerors from the "conquered
dark-skinned" indigenous
Dravidian
tribes through enforcement of "racial
endogamy". This claim was used by the British,
defining themselves as "purely Aryan", to justify
British Rule in India. Much of this was simply
conjecture, fueled by
British imperialism British policies of
divide and rule as well as enumeration of
the population into rigid categories during the tenure of British
rule in India contributed towards the hardening of these segregated
caste identities.. Since the independence of
South Asia from British rule, the British
fantasy of an "Aryan Invasion and
subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India" has become a
staple polemic in
South Asian
geopolitics, including the propaganda of
Indophobia in Pakistan. There is no decisive
theory as to the origins of the caste system in India, and globally
renown historians and archaeologists like
Jim Shaffer,
J.P.
Mallory,
Edwin
Bryant, and others, have disputed the claim of "Aryan
Invasion"
Some researchers from Europe and the U.S. claim that genetic
similarities to Europeans were more common in members of the higher
ranks. Their findings, published in
Genome Research, claimed the idea that
members of higher castes are more closely related to Europeans than
are the lower castes.. However, other researchers have criticized
and contradicted this claim. A study by Joanna L.
Mountain et al. of
Stanford
University
had concluded that there was "no clear separation
into three genetically distinct groups along caste lines", although
"an inferred tree revealed some clustering according to caste
affiliation". A 2006 study by Ismail Thanseem et al. of
Centre for
Cellular and Molecular Biology (India) concluded that the
"lower caste groups might have originated with the hierarchical
divisions that arose within the tribal groups with the spread of
Neolithic agriculturalists, much earlier
than the arrival of Aryan speakers", and "the
Indo-Europeans established themselves as upper
castes among this already developed caste-like class structure
within the tribes." A 2006 genetic study by the National Institute
of Biologicals in India, testing a sample of men from 32 tribal and
45 caste groups, concluded that the Indians have acquired very few
genes from
Indo-European
speakers. More recent studies have also debunked the British claims
that so-called "Aryans" and "Dravidians" have a "racial divide".
A study
conducted by the Centre for Cellular
and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in
collaboration with Harvard Medical School
, Harvard
School of Public Health and the Broad Institute of Harvard and
MIT
) analyzed
half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132
individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across
multiple caste groups. The study establishes, based on the
impossibility of identifying any genetic indicators across caste
lines, that castes in South Asia grew out of traditional tribal
organizations during the formation of Indian society, and was not
the product of any mythical "Aryan Invasion" and "subjugation" of
Dravidian people, unlike what British racial-
revanchist and
revisionist claims
would have one believe.
Anglo-Saxon England
Segregation may have existed in early
Anglo-Saxon England,
restricting intermarriage and resulting in the displacement of the
native
British population by
Germanic incomers.
According to research
led by the University College London
, Anglo-Saxon settlers enjoyed substantial social
and economic advantages over Celtic
Britons. However,
Stephen
Oppenheimer and
Bryan Sykes argue
that there was no population displacement, as the Anglo-Saxons had
relatively little genetic impact on England. In 2002, the
BBC used the headline "English and Welsh are races
apart" to report a genetic survey of test subjects from
market towns in England and Wales.
Jewish segregation
Jews in Europe generally were forced, by decree
or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated
ghettos and
shtetls. In 1204
the papacy required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians
and to wear distinctive clothing. Forced segregation of Jews spread
throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the Russian Empire
, Jews were restricted to the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier
of the Russian Empire corresponding roughly to the modern-day
countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. By the
early 20th century, the majority of European Jews lived in the Pale
of Settlement.
Jewish
population were confined to mellahs in
Morocco
beginning from the 15th century. In cities,
a
mellah was surrounded by a wall with a fortified
gateway. In contrast, rural
mellahs were separate villages
inhabited solely by the Jews.
In the middle of the 19th century,
J.
J. Benjamin wrote about the life of
Persian Jews:
"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…;
for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of
their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity
and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are
pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same
reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said
the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of
the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he
is subjected to the greatest insults.
The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat
him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is
forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch
the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask
for them...
Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of
the Jews and take possession of whatever please them.
Should the owner make the least opposition in defense
of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his
life...
If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the
three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be
murdered."
Qing dynasty China
Following
their conquest of China
and
establishment of the Qing
dynasty in
1644, the Manchus were keenly aware of their
minority status. During the early eras of their reign, they
implemented a strict policy of racial segregation between the
Manchus and
Mongols on the one hand and the
Han Chinese on the other. This ethnic
segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was
forbidden to keep up the Manchurian heritage and minimize
sinicization. In addition, in 1668 all Han Chinese were banned from
settling in Manchuria (see
Willow
Palisade).
Since the beginning of the Qing dynasty
in 1644, Han men in China had been required to wear
a queue as a sign of submission to the ruling
Manchus. The penalty for refusal was
death.
The policy of segregation applied directly to the
banner garrisons, most of which occupied a
separate walled zone within the cities in which they were
stationed.
(The Eight Banners formed the basic framework
for the Manchu military organization.) Examples as in cities where
there were limitations of space, such as in Qingzhou
(青州), a new fortified town was purposely erected to
house the Banner garrison and their families. While the Manchus
followed the governmental structure of the preceding Ming dynasty
, their ethnic policy dictated that appointments
were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed
the highest levels of the state
examinations.
Latin America
Many women in
Latin American
countries had
caste systems based on
classification by race and race mixture. An entire nomenclature
developed, including the familiar terms "
mulato", "
mestizo", and
"
zambo" (whence "
sambo"). The caste system was imposed
during colonial rule by the Spanish and Portuguese who had
practiced a form of caste system in
Hispania prior to the expulsion of the Jews and
Muslims. While many Latin American countries have long since
rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually
at the time of independence, prejudice based on degrees of
perceived racial distance from
European
ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo
of the colonial caste system.
Germany
The ban
of interracial marriage was part of the Nuremberg Laws enacted by the Nazis in Germany
against the German Jewish
community during the 1930s. The laws prohibited marriages
between Jews and
Aryan Germans, which were
classified as different races.
Under
General Government of occupied Poland
in 1940, the
population was divided into different groups, each with different
rights, food rations, allowed strips in the cities, public
transportation, etc.
During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were
made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, and were, along with
Romas (Gypsies) discriminated against
by the racial laws. Jewish doctors and professors were not allowed
to treat Aryan (effectively,
gentile)
patients or teach
Aryan pupils,
respectively.The Jews were also not allowed to use any public
transportation, besides the ferry, and would only be able to shop
from 3-5 in Jewish stores.
After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"),
the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops
and SS
members. Jews and Roma were subjected to
genocide as "undesirable" "racial" groups in the
Holocaust.
Ghetto were
established by the
Nazis to confine Jews and
sometimes Romas into tightly packed areas of the cities of
Eastern Europe turning them into
de-facto concentration
camps. The
Warsaw Ghetto was the
largest of these
Ghettos, with 400,000
people and the
Łódź
Ghetto, the second largest, holding about 160,000.
Between
1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish citizens
were transported to the Reich for forced
labour, against their will (in all, about 12 million forced
laborers were employed in the German war economy inside the
Nazi Germany). Although Nazi
Germany also used forced laborers from
Western Europe,
Poles,
along with other
Eastern Europeans
viewed as racially inferior, were subject to deeper discriminatory
measures. They were forced to wear identifying purple tags with P's
sewn to their clothing, subjected to a
curfew, and banned from
public transportation. While the
treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending
on the individual employer, Polish laborers as a rule were
compelled to work longer hours for lower wages than Western
Europeans — and, in many cities, they were forced to live in
segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with
Germans outside work were forbidden, and
sexual relations ("racial defilement") were punishable by
death.
Italy
In 1938, the
fascist regime led by
Benito Mussolini introduced a series of
laws instituting an official segregationist policy in the
Italian Empire,
especially aimed against the
Jews. This policy
enforced various segregationist norms, like the prohibition for
Jews to teach or study in ordinary schools and universities, to own
industries reputed of major national interest, to work as
journalists, to enter the military, and to wed non-Jews.Some of the
immediate consequences of the introduction of the 'provvedimenti
per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race)
included many of the best Italian scientists leaving their job, or
even Italy. Amongst these, world-renowned physicists
Emilio Segrè,
Enrico Fermi (whose wife was Jewish),
Bruno Pontecorvo,
Bruno Rossi,
Tullio Levi-Civita and mathematicians
Federigo Enriques and
Guido Fubini.
Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would
successively win the
Nobel Prize for
medicine, was forbidden to work at the university.
Albert Einstein, upon approval of the racial
law, resigned from honorary membership of the
Accademia dei Lincei.
Later,
Fascist Italy participated
actively in the persecution of the Italian Jews, arresting and
handing over tens of thousands of Jews to
Nazi Germany. The persecution of the Jews ended
in southern Italy (controlled by the Kingdom of Italy) after the
armistice with the Allies (September 8, 1943), while in central and
northern Italy (controlled by the
Italian Social Republic, a puppet
state of Nazi Germany led by Mussolini) the persecution continued
until the definitive fall of Mussolini's regime (April 25,
1945).
Rhodesia
The
British colony of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe
), under Ian Smith, leader
of the white minority government, declared unilateral independence
in 1965. For the next 15 years, Rhodesia operated under
white minority rule until international sanctions forced Smith to
hold multiracial elections, after a brief period of British rule in
1979.
Laws enforcing segregation had been around before 1965, although
many institutions simply ignored them. One highly publicized legal
battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new
Theatre that was to be open to all races, this
incident was nicknamed
"The Battle of the
Toilets".
South Africa
Apartheid was a
system which existed in
South Africa
for over forty years, although the term itself had a history going
back to the 1910s and unofficially before that for many years. It
was formalized in the years following the victory of the
National Party in the
all-white national election of 1948, increased in dominancy under
the rule of Prime Minister
Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd and
remained law until 1994. Examples of apartheid policy introduced
are the
Prohibition
of Mixed Marriages Act, 1951, which made marriage between races
illegal.
Apartheid was abolished following a rapid change in public
perception of racial segregation throughout the world, and an
economic
boycott against South Africa which
had crippled and threatened to destroy its economy.
United States
After the
Thirteenth
Amendment abolished
slavery in America, racial
discrimination became regulated by the so called
Jim Crow laws, which mandated strict
segregation of the races. Though such laws were instituted shortly
after fighting ended in many cases, they only became formalized
after the end of
Republican-enforced
Reconstruction
in the 1870s and 80s during a period known as the
nadir of American race
relations. This legalized segregation lasted up to the 1960s,
primarily through the deep and extensive power of
Southern Democrats.
While the
U.S.
Supreme Court majority in 1896 Plessy overtly upheld only
"separate but equal" facilities (specifically, transportation
facilities), Justice John Marshall
Harlan in his dissent
protested that the decision was an expression of white supremacy; he predicted that
segregation would "stimulate aggressions … upon the admitted rights
of colored citizens," "arouse race hate" and "perpetuate a feeling
of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between whites and
blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."
Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official
practice by the efforts of such
civil rights
activists as
Clarence Mitchell, Jr.,
Rosa Parks and
Martin Luther King Jr., working
during the period from the end of World War II through the passage
of the
Voting Rights Act and the
Civil Rights Act of 1964
supported by President
Lyndon B.
Johnson. Many of their efforts
were acts of
non-violent civil disobedience aimed at disrupting
the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as
refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white
person (
Rosa Parks), or holding
sit-ins at all-white
diners.
By 1968 all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional
by the Supreme Court and by 1970, support for formal legal
segregation had dissolved. Formal racial discrimination was illegal
in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil
services and the government. Separate bathrooms, water fountains
and schools all disappeared and the civil rights movement had the
public's support.
Since then, African-Americans have played a significant role as
mayors, governors, and state officials in both Southern and
Northern states and on the national level have been on the Supreme
Court, in the House of Representatives and the Senate, in
presidential cabinets, as head of the joint chiefs of staff, and in
2009, the first black
President of the United
States.
Redlining is the practice of denying or
increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access
to jobs, access to health care, or even
supermarkets to residents in certain, often
racially determined, areas. The most devastating form of redlining,
and the most common use of the term, refers to
mortgage discrimination. Over the
next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and
federal laws, including the
Home Mortgage Disclosure
Act and measure to end
mortgage discrimination in 1975,
would completely invalidate
de jure
racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S., although
de
facto segregation and discrimination have proven more
resilient.
According to the Civil Rights Project at
Harvard
University
, the actual de facto desegregation of U.S. public
schools peaked in the late 1980s; since that time, the schools
have, in fact, become more segregated mainly due to the ethnic
segregation of the nation with whites dominating the suburbs and
minorities the urban centers. As of 2005, the present
proportion of black students at majority white schools "are a level
lower than in any year since 1968."
Contemporary segregation
Middle East
There is
considerable racial segregation in Bahrain
and the United Arab Emirates
, where there are areas that house large numbers of
South Asian migrant workers (primarily
from India
and Pakistan
, but also from Bangladesh
).[4372]. After municipal elections in Bahrain in 2002 brought Islamist
opposition party Al Wefaq
Islamic Action to power in the capital Manama
, its newly
installed mayor, Murthader Bader
called for the introduction of racial segregation with the removal
from the city of all non-Bahraini South
Asian inhabitants and for the creation of a new township to
house them. In 2004, the head of Manama City Council, Al
Wefaq’s Murthader Bader, called for the introduction of racial
segregation in the city with the removal of South Asian nationals
to other parts of the country.In 2006, the call was reiterated by
Al Wefaq councillor Sadiq Rahma who said Asians 'make the
neighbourhood dirty' . The move has been criticised by Bahraini
human rights groups as a 'a violation of basic human rights' .
After 2006’s elections, the party’s Abdullah Al A’ali used his
parliamentary platform to call for legislation to restrict
expatriate labour away from Bahraini families, saying "Labourers
who now live in neighbourhoods with Bahraini families should be
given a grace period to relocate before they face legal
action."
Fiji
Two military coups in Fiji
in 1987
removed from power a government that was led by an ethnic Fijian, but was supported principally
by the Indo-Fijian (ethnic Indian)
electorate. A new constitution was promulgated in 1990,
establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of
President,
Prime Minister, two-thirds
of the
Senate, and a clear majority of
the
House of
Representatives reserved for ethnic Fijians, Ethnic Fijian
ownership of the land was also entrenched in the
constitution.
Fiji's case is a situation of de facto ethnic segregation.. Fiji
has a long complex history with more than 3500 years as a divided
Tribal nation. Unification under the British rule as a Colony for
96 years bought other racial groups, particularly immigrants from
the Indian sub-continent.
Independent Fiji's young democracy has been troubled by some
tension between the Indigenous Fijians and the Indo-Fijians at a
Political level along with provincial differences also and this
combined has caused some challenges with the Nation moving forward
clearly.
India
Some activists consider that the
Indian caste system is a form of
racial discrimination.
The
participants of the United Nations
Conference Against Racism in Durban
, South Africa in March 2001, condemned
discrimination due to the caste system, and tried to pass a
resolution declaring that caste as a basis for the segregation and
oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a
form of apartheid. However, no
formal resolution was passed to that effect
India's treatment of Dalits has been described by some authors as
"India's hidden apartheid".
Such allegations have also been rejected by many sociologists such
as
Andre Béteille, who writes
that treating caste as a form of racism is "politically
mischievous" and worse, "scientifically nonsense" since there is no
discernible difference in the racial characteristics between
Brahmins and
Scheduled Castes. He writes that "Every
social group cannot be regarded as a race simply because we want to
protect it against prejudice and discrimination".
Pakistani-American sociologist Ayesha
Jalal also rejects these allegations. In her book,
"Democracy and Authoritarianism in
South
Asia", she writes that "As for
Hinduism, the hierarchical principles of the
Brahmanical social order have always been
contested from within Hindu society, suggesting that equality has
been and continues to be both
valued and practiced."
Malaysia
Malaysia
has an article in its
constitution which distinctly segregates the ethnic Malay and indigenous peoples of Malaysia—i.e
bumiputra—from the non-Bumiputra such as
the Chinese and the East Indian under the social contract, of which by law
would guarantee the former certain special rights and
privileges. To question these rights and privileges however
is strictly prohibited under the Internal Security Act, legalised
by the 10th Article(IV) of the Constitution of Malaysia. The
privileges mentioned herein covers—few of which—the economical and
education aspects of Malaysians, e.g. the
Malaysian New Economic Policy;
an economic policy recently criticised by Thierry Rommel—who headed
a European Commission's delegation to Malaysia—as an excuse for
"significant protectionism" and a quota maintaining higher access
of Malays into public universities. This system of segregation,
seen as a form of apartheid by its opponent.
Mauritania
Slavery in Mauritania was
finally criminalized in August 2007 It was already abolished in
1980 though it was still affecting the descendants of black
Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in
Mauritania as "black
Moors" or
haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors",
or
bidhan (the name means literally white-skinned people),
as slaves. The number of slaves in the country was not known
exactly, but is was estimated to be up to 600,000 men, women and
children, or 20% of the population.
For centuries, the so-called
Haratin lower
class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been
considered natural slaves by white Moors of Arab/Berber ancestry.
Many descendants of the
Arab and
Berber tribes today still adhere to the
supremacist ideology of their ancestors.
This
ideology has led to oppression, discrimination and even enslavement
of other groups in the region of Sudan
and Western
Sahara. In certain villages
in Mauritania
there are mosques for
lighter-skinned nobles and mosques for black slaves, who are still
buried in separate cemeteries.
Yemen
- See also Castes in
Yemen
In
Yemen
, the Arab elite practices an
unofficial form of discrimination against the lower class Akhdam people.
United States
Rajiv Sethi, economist at Columbia University, writes that
Black-white segregation is declining fairly consistently for most
metropolitan areas in the US. Despite these pervasive patterns,
many changes for individual areas are small. Racial segregation or
separation can lead to social, economic and political tensions.
Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains
a residentially segregated society in which Blacks, Whites and
Hispanics inhabit
different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black
neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for
businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood
income, and the credit quality of local businesses. Gregory D.
Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected
and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance
industry. Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder
time finding jobs than suburban workers.
The desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend
integrated schools has been a factor in
white flight to the suburbs. Recent studies in
San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners of all races tended
to self-segregate in order to be with people of the same education
level and race. By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation
had been mostly replaced by decentralized racism, where whites pay
more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas. Today, many
whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a
predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas
commands a higher rent. By bidding up the price of housing, many
white neighborhoods effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are
unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into these
expensive neighborhoods. Conversely, equivalent housing in black
neighborhoods is far more affordable to those who are unable or
unwilling to pay a premium to live in white neighborhoods. Through
the 1990s, residential segregation remained at its extreme and has
been called "hypersegregation" by some sociologists or "American
Apartheid"
In February 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in
Johnson
v. California that the California Department of
Corrections' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners
in its prison reception centers — which California claimed was for
inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually
organize on racial lines)— is to be subject to
strict scrutiny, the highest level of
constitutional review.
There are
103
historically black colleges (HBCU) in the United States today, including public and private, two-year and
four-year institutions, medical schools and community
colleges. The 2009 "Stimulus Bill" would include more than
$1.3 billion for HBCU campuses.
See also
Notes
- Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the
Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
- Racial segregation. Britannica Online
Encyclopedia.
- From Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru,
reproduced from "History : Modern India" (p108) by S.N. Sen, New
Age Publishers, ISBN 8122417744
- Ayesha
Jalal. (1995). Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official
Imagining. International Journal of Middle East
Studies. 27(1). pp. 73-89.
- *Jim Shaffer
- "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an
Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the
pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document
archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous
cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods"
*J.P. Mallory
- "... the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions
from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the
Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures only
gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats
of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans". As quoted in Bryant (see
below) *Edwin
Bryant - "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area
that has not revealed any archaeological traces of
immigration."there is at least a series of archaeological cultures
that can be traced approaching the Indian subcontinent, even if
discontinuous, which does not seem to be the case for any
hypothetical east-to-west emigration" .
- Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European
Heritage. Scientific American. May 15, 2001.
- Indians are one people descended from two
tribes
- Aryan-Dravidian divide a myth: Study,
Times of
India
- Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study
Suggests
- Thomas, Mark G. et al. Evidence for a segregated social structure in early
Anglo-Saxon England. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 273(1601): 2651–2657.
- Gene Expression: Blood of the Wakas Wakas
- Special report: 'Myths of British ancestry' by
Stephen Oppenheimer | Prospect Magazine October 2006 issue
127
- "English and Welsh are Races Apart",
BBC, 30 June, 2002
- Wirth,
Louis. The Ghetto. Transaction Publishers (1997), pp.
29–40. ISBN 1560009837.
- A Short History of the Jewish Tradition
- Ghetto. Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Anti-Semitism in modern Europe
- The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennett
- Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183
- From Ming to Qing
- Soong, Roland. "Racial Classifications in Latin America",
1999.
- Cline, Howard F., "Review", The American Historical
Review, Vol. 76, No. 5 (Dec., 1971), 1626-1628.
- The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour
(September 15, 1935), section 1. "Marriages between Jews and
citizens of German or kindred blood are forbidden. Marriages
concluded in defiance of this law are void, even if, for the
purpose of evading this law, they were concluded abroad."
- Holocaust Timeline: The Ghettos
- Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced
Laborers
- Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World
War
- Hitler’s Plans
- Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era
- Brown at 50
- Racial Discrimination and Redlining in
Cities
- See: Race and health
- In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban
nutrition, Elizabeth Eisenhauer, GeoJournal Volume 53, Number 2 / February,
2001
- How East New York Became a Ghetto by Walter Thabit.
ISBN 0814782671. Page 42.
- Clashes spark call to relocate expats Gulf
Daily News, July 29 2004
- 'No go' rule for bachelor labourers Gulf Daily
News, January 23 2006
- Segregation of Asians slammed Gulf Daily News,
January 30, 2006
- Deputy calls for labour housing regulations,
Gulf News, 13 March 2007
- Country profile: Fiji
- Fiji: History
- UN seminar highlights concern in Fiji over ethnic
segregation
- An Untouchable Subject?
- Final Declaration of the Global Conference Against
Racism and Caste-based Discrimination
- Gopal Guru, with Shiraz Sidhva. India’s "hidden apartheid"
- Rajeev Dhavan. India's apartheid
- Race and caste by Andre Beteille
- A. Jalal,Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and
Historical Perspective (Contemporary South Asia), Cambridge
University Press (May 26, 1995), ISBN 0521478626
- Constitution of Malaysia,
Article 10
- BBC News Asia-Pacific
- Infernal ramblings
- blog entry 2007-06-26
- Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law by BBC News
- Mauritania made slavery illegal last month
- The Abolition season on BBC World
Service
- Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
- War and Genocide in Sudan
- Mauritania: The real beginning of the end of
slavery?
- Inequality and Segregation R Sethi, R Somanathan -
Journal of Political Economy, 2004
- Keating William Dennis The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing
and Neighborhoods (1994) Temple University Press. ISBN
1566391474
- Myth of the Melting Pot: America's Racial and
Ethnic Divides
- Massey Douglas S. Segregation and stratification: A
biosocial perspective Du Bois Review: Social Science Research
on Race (2004), 1: 7-25 Cambridge University Press
- Inequality and Segregation Rajiv Sethi and Rohini
Somanathan Journal of Political Economy, volume 112
(2004), pages 1296–1321
- Zenou Yves, Boccard Nicolas Racial Discrimination and
Redlining in Cities (1999)
- Homeowners self segregate by race and
education AP News 2007-09-10
- ..
- Recession hits black colleges hard.
Reuters. February 15, 2009
References
- Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L, White
Power, White Pride: The White Separatist Movement in the United
States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN
0-8018-6537-9.
- Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow, by
Mark Schultz. University of Illinois Press, 2005, ISBN
0-252-02960-7.
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