Radio-frequency identification
(
RFID) is the use of an object (typically referred
to as an RFID tag) applied to or incorporated into a product,
animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking
using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away
and beyond the line of sight of the reader.
Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an
integrated circuit for storing and
processing information,
modulating and
demodulating a
radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other
specialized functions. The second is an
antenna for receiving and transmitting the
signal.
There are generally three types of RFID tags: active RFID tags,
which contain a
battery and
can transmit signals autonomously, passive RFID tags, which have no
battery and require an external source to provoke signal
transmission, and battery assisted passive (BAP) which require an
external source to wake up but have significant higher forward link
capability providing great read range.
RFID has many applications, for example, it is used in enterprise
supply chain management to improve the efficiency of inventory
tracking and management.
History and technology background
In 1945
Léon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Union
which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio
information. Sound waves vibrated a
diaphragm which slightly altered the
shape of the
resonator, which modulated
the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a
covert listening device, not
an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID
technology, because it was likewise passive, being energized and
activated by electromagnetic waves from an outside source.
Similar
technology, such as the IFF transponder invented in the United Kingdom
in 1915, was routinely used by the allies in
World War II to identify aircraft as
friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered
aircraft to this day.Another early work exploring RFID is the
landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by
Means of Reflected Power" (Proceedings of the IRE, pp 1196–1204,
October 1948). Stockman predicted that "... considerable research
and development work has to be done before the remaining basic
problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before
the field of useful applications is explored."
Mario Cardullo's in 1973 was the first true ancestor of modern
RFID; a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device
was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was
demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other
potential users and consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory
for use as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use
of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business
plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation
(automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system,
electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle routing,
vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book,
electronic credit card), security (personnel identification,
automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient
history).
A very
early demonstration of reflected power (modulated
backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was
performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Freyman at the
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
in 1973. The portable system operated at
915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the
majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags.
The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was
granted to Charles Walton in 1983 .
The largest deployment of active RFID is the US Department of
Defense use of Savi active tags on every one of its more than a
million shipping containers that travel outside of the continental
United States (CONUS). The largest passive RFID deployment is the
Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) deployment across 72 facilities
implemented by ODIN who also performed the global roll-out for
Airbus consisting of 13 projects across the globe.
Miniaturization
RFID is the technology which makes it easy to conceal or
incorporate them in other items.
For example, in 2009 researchers at
Bristol
University
successfully glued RFID microtransponders to live
ants in order to study their behavior.
This trend towards increasingly miniaturized RFID is likely to
continue as technology advances. However, the ability to read at
distance is limited by the
inverse-square law.
Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05mm x
0.05mm. The Mu chip tags are 64 times smaller than the new RFID
tags. Manufacture isenabled by using the
Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) process.
These "dust" sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit
Read Only Memory (ROM). A major
challenge is the attachment of the antennas, thus limiting read
range to only millimeters.
Potential alternatives to the radio frequencies (0.125–0.1342,
0.140–0.1485, 13.56, and 840–960 MHz) used are seen in
optical RFID (or OPID) at 333
THz (900 nm), 380 THz (788 nm),
750 THz (400 nm). The awkward antennas of RFID can be replaced
with
photovoltaic components and
IR-
LEDs on the
IC.
Current uses
RFID is becoming increasingly prevalent as the price of the
technology decreases. In January 2003
Gillette announced that it ordered 500 million tags
from
Alien Technology. Gillette VP
Dick Cantwell, now an employee of Cisco says the company paid "well
under ten cents" for each tag. The Japanese
HIBIKI initiative aims to reduce the price to 5
Yen (4 eurocents). And in January 2009 Envego
announced a 5.9 cent tag.
Season Parking Ticket
Following a successful pilot, Housing & Development Board (HDB)
Singapore called two tenders in 2006 to implement RFID to replace
the paper Season Parking Ticket (SPT). The successful tenderers
have distributed RFID tags to SPT holders since March 2007.
IT asset tracking
In 2008 more than a dozen new passive UHF RFID tags emerged to be
specifically mounted on metal. One such tag, the
Omni-ID Ultra, was the subject of a September 2009
Product Benchmark Report by Industry Wizards and RFID Global
Solutions, which found that the tag could be reliably read from 90
feet using a hand held reader and from 135 feet using a stationary
reader.
At the same time new integrated circuits (ICs) were introduced by
Impinj and NXP (formerly Philips) which proved much better
performance and the IT Asset Tracking application exploded. The
largest adopter to date appear to be Bank of America and Wells
Fargo - each with more than 100,000 assets across more than a dozen
data centers .
Race timing
Many forms of RFID race timing have been in use for timing races of
different types since the early 1990s. The practice began with
pigeon racing, introduced by a company called deister electronic
Gmbh of Barsinghausen, Germany:
Deister Electronics. It is used for
registering race start and end timings for animals or individuals
in a marathon-type race where it is impossible to get accurate
stopwatch readings for every entrant.
In foot races, racers wear passive tags which are read by antennae
placed alongside the track. UHF based tags instead of Low or high
frequency last generation tags provide accurate readings with
specially designed antennas. Rush error, lap count errors and
accidents at start time are avoided since anyone can start and
finish anytime without being in a batch mode.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies which have a PET
(Physical Endurance Test) as their qualifying procedure especially
in cases where the candidate volumes may run into millions (Indian
Railway Recruitment Cells, Police and Power sector). An Indian
Software company Software Outsourcing Services has perfected the
system for the same purpose using UHF tags for the first time and
they are able to process more than 30,000 candidates per day.
Passports
The first
RFID passports ("E-passport")
were issued by Malaysia
in
1998. In addition to information also contained on the
visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports record the
travel history (time, date, and place) of entries and exits from
the country.
Other
countries that put RFID in passports include Norway (2005), Japan
(March 1, 2006), most EU countries (around 2006)
including Spain
, Ireland and
UK
, Australia and the United States (2007), Serbia
(July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Albania (January
2009), The Philippines (August 2009).
Standards
for RFID passports are determined by the International
Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO
), and are
contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th
edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the
ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as
"contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for
e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-passport logo on the
front cover.
In 2006, RFID tags were included in new US passports. The US
produced 10 million passports in 2005, and it has been estimated
that 13 million will be produced in 2006. The chips inlays produced
by
Smartrac will store the same information
that is printed within the passport and will also include a digital
picture of the owner.
The US State
Department
initially stated the chips could only be read from
a distance of 10 cm (4 in), but after widespread
criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read
the test passports from 10 meters (33 ft) away, the passports
were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more
difficult for unauthorized readers to "skim" information when the
passport is closed. The department will also implement
Basic Access Control (BAC),
which functions as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) in the
form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a
passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID
reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication
between the chip and interrogator .
Security expert
Bruce Schneier has
suggested that a mugger operating near an airport could target
victims who have arrived from wealthy countries, or a terrorist
could design an
improvised
explosive device which functioned when approached by persons
from a particular country if passengers did not put their cards in
an area close to their body (high liquid and saline content) or in
a foil-lined wallet.
Some other European Union countries are also planning to add
fingerprints and other biometric data, while some have already done
so.
Mobile payment
Credit card companies are now looking for payment solutions for
adding contactless payment cards to any mobile phone. A carrier
solution that satisfied the industry's needs is now available. Less
than 3mm thick, the sub-card will withstand its environment for 2
years, protected from the elements and secured in the carrier once
inserted .
Transportation payments
- RFID is being used for E - Tolling in Motorways, Pakistan,
Implemented by NADRA.
- Throughout Europe, and in particular in
Paris (system started in 1995 by the RATP),
Lyon, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Nancy and Marseilles in France, in the
whole of the Portuguese highway system and in many Portuguese
public car parks, Milan, Turin, Naples and Florence in Italy, and
Brussels in Belgium, RFID passes conforming to the Calypso international standard are used for
public transport systems. They are also used now in Canada
(Montreal), Mexico, Israel, Bogotá and Pereira in Colombia,
Stavanger in Norway, Luxembourg, etc.
- In
Seoul, South
Korea
and surrounding cities, T-money cards can be used to pay for public
transit. Some other South Korean cities have adopted the
system, which can also be used in some stores as cash. T-money
replaced Upass, first introduced for transport
payments in 1996 using MIFARE
technology.
- In
Turkey
, RFID has
been used in the motorways and bridges as a payment system since
[Nov 2008]; it is also used in electronic bus tickets in Istanbul
.
- In
Hong
Kong
, mass transit is paid for almost exclusively
through the use of an RFID technology, called the Octopus Card. Originally it was launched
in September 1997 exclusively for transit fare collection, but has
grown to be similar to a cash card, and can still be used in
vending machines, fast-food restaurants and supermarkets. The card can be recharged with
cash at add-value machines or in shops, and can be read several
centimetres from the reader. The same applies for Delhi Metro, the rapid transit system in New
Delhi, capital city of India
.
- JR East in Japan
introduced
SUICa (Super Urban Intelligent Card) for
transport payment service in its railway transportation service in
November 2001, using Sony's FeliCa (Felicity
Card) technology. The same Sony technology was used in Hong
Kong's Octopus card, and Singapore's
EZ-Link card.
- In Singapore, public transportation buses and trains employ
passive RFID cards known as EZ-Link cards.
Traffic into crowded downtown areas is regulated by variable tolls
imposed using an active tagging system combined with the use of
stored-value cards (known as CashCards).
- RFID is used in Malaysia Expressways payment system. The name
for the system is Touch 'n Go. As the system's name indicates, the
card is designed to only function as an RFID card when the user
touches it.
- Since
2002, in Taipei
, Taiwan
the
transportation system uses RFID operated cards as fare
collection. The Easy Card is
charged at local convenience stores and metro stations, and can be
used in Metro, buses and parking lots. The uses are planned to
extend all throughout the island of Taiwan in the future.
- In
the UK, operating
systems for prepaying for unlimited public transport have been devised, making
use of RFID technology. The design is embedded in a
creditcard-like pass, that when scanned reveals details of whether
the pass is valid, and for how long the pass will remain valid.
The first
company to implement this is the NCT company of Nottingham
City, where the general public affectionately refer
to them as "beep cards". It has since been successfully implemented
in London
, where
"Oyster cards" allow for pay-as-you-go
travel as well as passes valid for various lengths of time and in
various areas.
- In
Oslo
, Norway
, the
upcoming public transport payment is to be entirely
RFID-based. The system was slated for introduction around
spring 2007.
- In
Norway, all public
toll roads are equipped with an RFID payment system known as
AutoPASS.
- RFID
tags are used for electronic
toll collection at toll booths with
Georgia
's Cruise Card, California
's FasTrak, Colorado
's E-470, Illinois
' I-Pass, Oklahoma
's Pikepass, the expanding
eastern states' E-ZPass system (including
Massachusetts's Fast Lane,Delaware,
New Hampshire Turnpike,
Maryland, New Jersey Turnpike, Pennsylvania
Turnpike, West Virginia Turnpike, New
York's Thruway system, Virginia, and the Maine Turnpike),Central Florida also utilizes
this technology, via its E-PASS System. E-PASS and Sunpass
are mutually compatible. Florida's SunPass,
Various systems in Texas including D/FW's NTTA TollTag, the Austin metro TxTag
and Houston HCTRA EZ Tag (which as of early
2007 are all valid on any Texas toll road), Kansas
's K-Tag, The "Cross-Israel
Highway"
(Highway 6), Philippines
South Luzon
Expressway E-Pass, Brisbane
's Queensland
Motorways GoVia tag (previously called E-Toll) System in
Australia, Autopista del Sol (Sun's
Highway), Autopista Central (Central Highway), Autopista Los
Libertadores, Costanera Norte, Vespucio Norte Express and Vespucio
Sur urban Highways and every forthcoming urban highway (in a
"Free Flow" modality) concessioned to
private investors in Chile
, all toll
tunnels in Hong
Kong (Autotoll) and all highways
in Portugal
(Via Verde, the first
system in the world to span the entire network of tolls), France
(Liber-T
system), Italy
(Telepass), Spain (VIA-T), Brazil
(Sem Parar - Via Fácil).
The tags, which are usually the active type, are read remotely as
vehicles pass through the booths, and tag information is used to
debit the toll amount from a prepaid
account. The system helps to speed traffic
through toll plazas as it records the date, time, and billing data
for the RFID vehicle tag. The plaza- and queue-free 407 Express Toll Route, in the
Greater Toronto Area, allows
the use of a transponder (an active tag) for all billing. This
eliminates the need to identify a vehicle by licence plate.
- The
Transperth public transport network in
Perth,
Western Australia
uses RFID technology its SmartRider ticketing system, allowing passengers
to "tag on" and "tag off" and be charget automatically, according
to how many zones they have travelled, and which form of transport
they have used.
- In
Atlanta
, MARTA
(Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority) has transitioned its
bus and rail lines from coin tokens to the new Breeze Card system which uses RFID tags embedded
in disposable paper tickets. More permanent plastic cards
are available for frequent users.
- In
Rio de
Janeiro
, "RioCard" passes can be used in buses, ferries,
trains and subway. There are two types, one you cannot
recharge, the other one can be recharged if it's been bought by the
company you work for, if they provided it (only in Brazil).
- A number of ski resorts, particularly
in Scandinavia, the French Alps and in the Spanish and French
Pyrenees, have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free
access to ski lifts. Skiers don't have to
take their passes out of their pockets.
- In
Santiago
(Chile) the subway system Metro and the recently
implemented public transportation system Transantiago use an RFID card called "Bip" or
"Multivia".
- In
Medellín
(Colombia) the recently-implemented card system for
the Metro system uses an RFID card called Cívica.
- In
Dubai
, (United Arab Emirates) drivers through Sheikh
Zayed Road and Garhoud Bridge pay tolls using RFID tags called
Salik . Also Dubai has
initiated a Public Transportation Card named Nol [25572] (which means Fare
in Arabic) for use in the metro, Bus, and Waterbus, it was
introduced to service on the 9th of September 2009, the day of the
official launch of the Dubai Metro.
- In
San
Diego
, California, Metropolitan Transit Systems (MTS), North County
Transit District (NCTD), and The San Diego Association Of
Governments (SANDAG) use a re-writable RFID Smart Card referred to
locally as the Compass Card, To Store
Daily, Weekly, or Monthly passes or cash value, to make Boarding
The Buses and Trains quicker and easier.
- In
Finland
, the RFID travel card system used in the Greater
Helsinki
region is the largest of systems in Europe that
cover all modes of traffic (Busses, Trams, Commuter Train Units,
Metros and Ferry Terminals) operation since 2001.
- In
Dublin
(Ireland)
the LUAS light rail system has been using an RFID enabled 'smart
card' system since March 2005.
- The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID
cards for locking and unlocking cars and for member
identification.
- In
Osijek
since 2008
public transportation (buses,trams) is controlled by RFID
cards.
RFID and asset management
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) combined with
mobile computing and Web technologies
provide a way for organizations to identify and manage their
assets. Initially introduced to major retail by Craig Patterson,
Knoxville, TN.Mobile computers, with integrated RFID readers, can
now deliver a complete set of tools that eliminate paperwork, give
proof of identification and attendance. This approach eliminates
manual data entry.Web based management tools allow organizations to
monitor their assets and make management decisions from anywhere in
the world. Web based applications now mean that third parties, such
as manufacturers and contractors can be granted access to update
asset data, including for example, inspection history and transfer
documentation online ensuring that the end user always has
accurate, real-time data.Organizations are already using RFID tags
combined with a mobile asset management solution to record and
monitor the location of their assets, their current status, and
whether they have been maintained.
Product tracking
- The Canadian
Cattle Identification Agency began using RFID tags as a
replacement for barcode tags. The tags are required to identify a
bovine's herd of origin and this is used for tracing when a packing
plant condemns a carcass. Currently CCIA tags are used in Wisconsin
and by US farmers on a voluntary basis.
The
USDA
is currently developing its own
program.
- BGN has launched two fully automated Smartstores that combine item-level RFID tagging
and SOA to deliver an
integrated supply chain, from warehouse to consumer.
- UHF, Ultra-HighFID or UHFID
tags are commonly used commercially in case, pallet, and shipping
container tracking, and truck and trailer
tracking in shipping yards.
- In
Colombia
, "Federación Nacional de Cafeteros" uses an RFID
solution to trace the coffee.
- In
Berlin
, Germany
, the Berliner Wasserbetriebe (water treatment
facility) Uses RFID systems from Psion
Teklogix and Elektroniksystem-und-Logistik-GmbH (ESG) to
identify and track its 60,000 assets.
Transportation and logistics
- Logistics & Transportation is a major area of
implementation for RFID technology. For example, Yard Management,
Shipping & Freight and Distribution Centers are some areas
where RFID tracking technology is used. Transportation companies
around the world value RFID technology due to its impact on the
business value and efficiency.
- The North American railroad
industry operates an automatic equipment identification system
based on RFID. Locomotives and rolling stock are equipped with two
passive RFID tags (one mounted on each side of the equipment); the
data encoded on each tag identifies the equipment owner, car
number, type of equipment, number of axles, etc. The equipment
owner and car number can be used to derive further data about the
physical characteristics of the equipment from the Association of American
Railroads' car inventory database and the railroad's own
database indicating the lading, origin,
destination, etc. of the commodities being carried.
- Aerospace applications that incorporate RFID technology are
being incorporated into Network Centric Product
Support architecture. This technology serves to help facilitate
more efficient logistics support for systems maintenance on-board
commercial aircraft.
- Baggages passing through the Hong Kong
International Airport
are individually tagged with "HKIA" RFID tags as
they navigate the airport's baggage handling system, which
improves efficiency and reduces misplaced items.
Lap scoring
Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as
Orienteering,
Enduro and
Hare and Hounds racing.
Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm.
When they complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is
connected to a computer and log their lap time. The
Casimo Group Ltd sells such a system, as
does Sweden's
SportIdent.
Animal identification
Implantable RFID tags or
transponders
can be used for animal identification. The transponders are more
well-known as passive RFID technology, or simply "Chips" on
animals.
Inventory systems
An advanced automatic identification technology such as the Auto-ID
system based on the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
technology has significant value for inventory systems. Notably,
the technology provides an accurate knowledge of the current
inventory. In an academic study performed at Wal-Mart, RFID reduced
Out-of-Stocks by 30 percent for products selling between 0.1 and 15
units a day. Other benefits of using RFID include the reduction of
labor costs, the simplification of business processes, and the
reduction of inventory inaccuracies.
In 2004, Boeing integrated the use of RFID technology to help
reduce maintenance and inventory costs on the
Boeing 787 Dreamliner. With the high
costs of aircraft parts, RFID technology allowed Boeing to keep
track of inventory despite the unique sizes, shapes and
environmental concerns. During the first six months after
integration, the company was able to save $29,000 in labor
alone.
RFID mandates
Wal-Mart
and the United
States Department of Defense
have published requirements that their vendors
place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management. Due
to the size of these two organizations, their RFID mandates impact
thousands of companies worldwide. The deadlines have been extended
several times because many vendors face significant difficulties
implementing RFID systems. In practice, the successful read rates
currently run only 80%, due to radio wave
attenuation caused by the products and
packaging. In time it is expected that even small
companies will be able to place RFID tags on their outbound
shipments.
Since January 2005, Wal-Mart has required its top 100 suppliers to
apply RFID labels to all shipments. To meet this requirement,
vendors use RFID printer/encoders to label cases and pallets that
require
EPC tags for
Wal-Mart. These smart labels are produced by embedding RFID inlays
inside the
label material, and then printing
bar code and other visible information on the surface of the
label.
Another Wal-Mart division,
Sam's Club,
has also moved in this direction. It sent letters dated Jan. 7,
2008 to its suppliers, stating that by Jan. 31, 2008, every full
single-item
pallet shipped to its
distribution center in DeSoto, Texas, or directly to one of its
stores served by that DC, must bear an EPC Gen 2 RFID tag.
Suppliers failing to comply will be charged a service fee.
The DoD requirements for RFID tags on packages is prescribed in the
Defense Federal Acquisition Regulations Supplements (DFARS)
252.211-7006. Positioning of the tag needs to
be completed in accordance with the clause and definitions in
MIL STD 129 and as of 1 March 2007, EPC
Global tags must comply with
EPCglobal
Class 1 Generation 2 specification.
Promotion tracking
Manufacturers of products sold through retailers promote their
products by offering discounts for a limited period on products
sold to retailers with the expectation that the retailers will pass
on the savings to their customers. However, retailers typically
engage in
forward buying, purchasing more product during
the discount period than they intend to sell during the promotion
period. Some retailers engage in a form of
arbitrage, reselling discounted product to other
retailers, a practice known as
diverting. To combat this
practice, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on
promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product
has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.
Human implants
Hand with the planned location of the
RFID chip.
Just after the operation to insert the
RFID tag was completed.
NOTE: the yellow is from the sanitation before inserting the
chip.
Implantable RFID chips designed for animal tagging are now being
used in humans. An early experiment with RFID implants was
conducted by British professor of
cybernetics Kevin
Warwick, who implanted a chip in his arm in 1998.
In 2004 Conrad Chase offered implanted chips in his
night clubs in Barcelona
and Rotterdam
to identify their VIP customers, who in turn use it
to pay for drinks.
In 2004, the Mexican Attorney General's office implanted 18 of its
staff members with the
Verichip to control
access to a secure data room.
Security experts have warned against using RFID for authenticating
people due to the risk of
identity
theft. For instance a
man-in-the-middle attack would make
it possible for an attacker to steal the identity of a person in
real-time. Due to the resource constraints of RFIDs it is virtually
impossible to protect against such attack models as this would
require complex distance-binding protocols.
Libraries
RFID tags used in libraries: square
book tag, round CD/DVD tag and rectangular VHS tag.
Among the many uses of RFID technology is its deployment in
libraries. This technology has slowly begun
to replace the traditional barcodes on library items (books,
CDs,
DVDs, etc.).
The RFID tag can contain identifying information, such as a book's
title or material type, without having to be pointed to a separate
database (but this is rare in North
America). The information is read by an RFID reader, which replaces
the standard
barcode reader commonly
found at a library's circulation desk. The RFID tag found on
library materials typically measures 50 mm X 50 mm in
North America and 50 mm x 75 mm in Europe. It may replace
or be added to the
barcode, offering a
different means of inventory management by the staff and
self service by the borrowers. It can also act
as a
security device, taking the place of
the more traditional
electromagnetic security
strip And not only the books, but also the membership cards
could be fitted with an RFID tag.
While there is some debate as to when and where RFID in libraries
first began, it was first proposed in the late 1990s as a
technology that would enhance workflow in the library setting.
Singapore
was certainly one of the first to introduce RFID in
libraries and Rockefeller University
in New
York
may have been the first academic library in the
United
States
to utilize this technology, whereas Farmington Community
Library in Michigan
may have been the first public institution, both of
which began using RFID in 1999. In Europe, the first public library to use RFID was the
one in Hoogezand-Sappemeer
, the Netherlands
, in 2001, where borrowers were given an
option. To their surprise, 70% used the RFID option and
quickly adapted, including elderly people.
Worldwide, in absolute numbers, RFID is used
most in the United States (with its 300 million inhabitants),
followed by the United
Kingdom and Japan.
It is
estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain
RFID tags, including some in the Vatican Library
in Rome
.
RFID has many library applications that can be highly beneficial,
particularly for circulation staff. Since RFID tags can be read
through an item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case
to scan an item. This could reduce
repetitive-motion injuries. Where
the books have a barcode on the outside, there is still the
advantage that borrowers can scan an entire pile of books in one
go, instead of one at a time. Since RFID tags can also be read
while an item is in motion, using RFID readers to check-in returned
items while on a
conveyor belt reduces
staff time. But, as with barcode, this can all be done by the
borrowers themselves, meaning they might never again need the
assistance of staff. Next to these readers with a fixed location
there are also portable ones (for librarians, but in the future
possibly also for borrowers, possibly even their own
general-purpose readers). With these, inventories could be done on
a whole shelf of materials within seconds, without a book ever
having to be taken off the shelf..
In Umeå
, Sweden
, RFID is
being used to assist visually impaired people in borrowing
audiobooks. In Malaysia, Smart Shelves are used to pinpoint
the exact location of books in Multimedia University Library,
Cyberjaya. In the Netherlands, handheld readers are being
introduced for this purpose.
The Dutch Union of Public Libraries ('Vereniging van Openbare
Bibliotheken') is working on the concept of an interactive 'context
library', where borrowers get a reader/headphones-set, which leads
them to the desired section of the library (using triangulation
methods, rather like
GPS) and which they can
use to read information from books on the shelves with the desired
level of detail (e.g. a section read out loud), coming from the
book's tag itself or a database elsewhere, and get tips on
alternatives, based on the borrowers' preferences, thus creating a
more personalised version of the library. This may also lead them
to sections of the library they might not otherwise visit.
Borrowers could also use the system to exchange experiences (such
as grading books). This is already done by children in the virtual
realm at
mijnstempel.nl, but the same could be done in
physical form. Borrowers can grade the book at the return
desk.
However, as of 2008 this technology remains too costly for many
smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at
11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was
that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a
cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each,
detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID taking a large
burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will be needed,
resulting in some of them getting fired, but that has so far not
happened in North America where recent surveys have not returned a
single library that cut staff because of adding RFID. In fact,
library budgets are being reduced for personnel and increased for
infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation
to compensate for the reduced staff size. Also, the tasks that RFID
takes over are largely not the primary tasks of librarians. A
finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are pleased with the
fact that staff are now more available for answering
questions.
A concern surrounding RFID in libraries that has received
considerable publicity is the issue of privacy. Because RFID tags
can -depending on the RFID transmitter & reader- be scanned and
read from up to 350 feet or 100 m (eg Smart Label RFID's), and
because RFID utilizes an assortment of
frequencies (both depending on the type of tag,
though), there is some concern over whether sensitive information
could be collected from an unwilling source. However, library RFID
tags do not contain any patron information, and the tags used in
the majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from
approximately ten feet. Also, libraries have always had to keep
records of who has borrowed what, so in that sense there is nothing
new. However, many libraries destroy these records once an item has
been returned. RFID would complicate or nullify this respect of
readers' privacy. Further, another non-library agency could
potentially record the RFID tags of every person leaving the
library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent.
One simple option is to only let the book transmit a code, that
will only mean anything in conjunction with the library's database.
Another step further is to give the book a new code every time it
is returned. And if in the future readers become ubiquitous (and
possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced even outside
the library. Removing of the tags could be made difficult if they
are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page,
possibly put there by the publisher.
Schools and universities
School authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka are now chipping
children's clothing, back packs, and student IDs in a primary
school.
A
school in Doncaster
, England
is piloting a monitoring system designed to keep
tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms.
St
Charles Sixth Form College in
West
London, England, started September, 2008, is using an RFID card
system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track
attendance and prevent unauthorized entrance.
As is Whitcliffe
Mount School in Cleckheaton
, England which uses RFID to track pupils and staff
in and out of the building via a specially designed cards.In the
Philippines , some schools already use RFID in IDs for borrowing
books and also gates in that particular schools have RFID ID
Scanners. These Schools are Claret School of Quezon City ,
Colegio de San Juan de Letran and Other private Schools
Museums
RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user applications
in museums.
An example is the custom-designed
application "eXsport" at the Exploratorium
, a science museum in San
Francisco, California
. A visitor entering the museum receives an
RF Tag that can be carried on a card or necklace. The eXspot system
enables the visitor to receive information about the exhibit and
take photos to be collected at the giftshop. Later they can visit
their personal Web page on which specific information such as visit
dates, the visited exhibits and the taken photographs can be
viewed.
Social retailing
When customers enter a dressing room, the mirror reflects their
image and also images of the apparel item being worn by celebrities
on an interactive display. A webcam also projects an image of the
consumer wearing the item on the website for everyone to see. This
creates an interaction between the consumers inside the store and
their social network outside the store. The technology in this
system is an RFID interrogator antenna in the dressing room and
Electronic Product Code RFID
tags on the apparel item.
Miscellaneous
- The NEXUS and
SENTRI frequent traveler programs use RFID to
speed up landborder processing between the U.S. and Canada and
Mexico.
- NADRA has developed an RFID-based driver license that bears the license
holder's personal information and stores data regarding traffic
violations, tickets issued, and outstanding penalties. The license
cards are designed so that driving rights can be revoked
electronically in case of serious violations.
- Sensors such as seismic sensors may be read using RFID transceivers,
greatly simplifying remote data
collection.
- Milimeter accurate location sensing can be achieved by adding a
micrometer wide photodetector and performing a hybrid RF-Optical
communication with the RFID tag. This is called Radio
Frequency Identity and Geometry (RFIG).
- In
August 2004, the Ohio
Department
of Rehabilitation and Correction (ODRC) approved a $415,000
contract to evaluate the personnel-tracking technology of Alanco Technologies. Inmates will
wear wristwatch-sized transmitters that
can detect attempted removal and alert prison
computers. This project is not the first rollout of tracking chips
in US prisons. Facilities in Michigan, California and Illinois already employ the
technology.
- Used as storage for a video game
system produced by Mattel, "HyperScan".
- RFIQin, designed by Vita Craft, is an automatic cooking
device that has three different sized pans, a portable induction heater, and recipe cards. Each
pan is embedded with an RFID tag that monitors the food 16 times
per second while an MI tag in the handle of the pans transmits
signals to the induction heater to
adjust the temperature.
- RFID tags are now being embedded into playing cards that are
used for televised poker tournaments, so commentators know exactly
what cards have been dealt to whom, as soon as the deal is
complete.
- The Iraqi army uses an RFID security card that contains a
biometric picture of the soldier. The picture in the chip must
match the picture on the card to prevent forgery.
- Theme parks (such
as Alton
Towers
in the United Kingdom) have been known to use RFID
to help them identify users of a ride in order to make a DVD of
their time at the park. This is then available for the users
to buy at the end of the day. This is voluntary by the users by
wearing a wristband given to them at the park.
- Many places that employ traditional swipe cards for access control are slowly shifting to RFID
no-contact cards.
- Meetings and conventions have also implemented RFID technology
into attendee badges allowing the ability to track people at
conferences. This provides data that can display what rooms people
have enter and exited during the day. This data is available to
show organizers to help them improve the content and design of the
conference. RFID is also being used to improve the lead retrieval process for exhibitors at
exhibitions.
- RFID transponder chips have been implanted in golf balls to allow them to be tracked. The uses
of such tracking range from being able to search for a lost ball
using a homing device, to a computerized driving range format that tracks shots made by
a player and gives feedback on distance and accuracy.
- In 2007 artist couple artcoon starts their world project
Kansa. Sirpa Masalin's human-like wooden sculptures
carry an RFID inside. Hans-Ulrich Goller-Masalin created a New
Media Art work which traces the individual sculptures of Kansa in
the internet. Owners are asked to register the city where their
sculpture is located. By comparing the RFIDs unique number
referenced at artcoon the owner can identify his sculpture as the
original one.
- Some casinos are embedding RFID tags into their chips. This
allows the casinos to track the locations of chips on the casino
floor, identify counterfeit chips, and prevent theft. In addition,
casinos can use RFID systems to study the betting behavior of
players.
- Hong Kong International Airport places RFID sticker labels on
all incoming baggage when received, encoded with the destination
and flight.
- In 2006, the Smart Conveyor Tunnel, designed by Blue Vector, was introduced. This allowed the
pharmaceutical industry to track both
UHF and HF tags. Rite Aid
utilized the technology with some of McKesson Corporation's products.
- In
February 2007, Spanish technicians recruited now by Dipole RFID
Engineers Barcelona, achieved to read 99.8% of a Tetra Pak milk pallet with more than 100 boxes in
it. Impinj was collaborated like a major technology
provider.
- Audiobooks for children.
- On September 2008, Alcatel-Lucent
presented at Demo Fall 2008 the first consumer RFID service: touchatag. It
connects to the PC (Windows or Mac) via USB and launches all kinds
of multimedia applications when detecting an object equipped with
an RFID-tag. They also have an application development program and
business solutions (e.g. cooperation with Pingping - Belgium and a commercial pilot
for Accor Services)
- On September 2008, Violet presented at IFA the consumer
USB RFID reader : Mir:ror. It connects to the PC (Windows or Mac) via
USB and launches all kinds of multimedia applications when
detecting an object equipped with an RFID-tag.
- Some hospitals use Active RFID tags to perform Asset Tracking in Real Time.
- In February 2008, ThingMagic
announced a partnership with Dewalt and
Ford to equip 2009 Ford F-150, F-Series Super
Duty pickups and E-Series vans with an embedded RFID asset tracking
system enabled by ThingMagic's Mercury5e readers.
- In
November 2008, Dipole RFID Engineers of Barcelona, Spain, demonstrated 100% reading of a full pallet
load of automotive batteries, made
possible by special tag designs and higher antenna
gain.
- Two Open source software libraries
that support various RFID devices are librfid and libnfc.
Potential uses
RFID can be used in a variety of applications such as :
- Access management
- Tracking of goods and RFID in retail
- Tracking of persons and animals
- Toll collection and contactless payment
- Machine readable
travel documents
- Smart dust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
- Location-based
services
- Tracking Sports memorabilia to verify authenticity
- Airport Baggage Tracking Logistics
Replacing barcodes
RFID tags are often a replacement for
UPC or
EAN barcodes, having a number of
important advantages over the older barcode technology. They may
not ever completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher
cost and the advantage of multiple data sources on the same object.
The new
EPC, along with
several other schemes, is widely available at reasonable
cost.
The storage of data associated with tracking items will require
many
terabytes. Filtering and categorizing
RFID data is needed to create useful information. It is likely that
goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, and at package
level with Universal Product Code (
UPC) or
EAN from unique
barcodes.
The unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags,
despite special choice of the numbering scheme. RFID tag data
capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a
unique code, while current bar codes are limited to a single type
code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means
that a product may be tracked as it moves from location to
location, finally ending up in the consumer's hands. This may help
to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of
products is an important feature that gets well supported with RFID
tags containing a unique identity of the tag and also the serial
number of the object. This may help companies to cope with quality
deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also contributes
to concern about tracking and profiling of consumers after the
sale.
It has also been proposed to use RFID for
POS store checkout to replace the
cashier with an automatic system which needs no
barcode scanning. In the past this was not possible due to the
higher cost of tags and existing POS process technologies. However,
Industry Standard, a couture shop and recording studio in Ohio has
successfully
implemented a POS procedure that allows faster
transaction throughput.
An FDA-nominated task force concluded, after studying the various
technologies currently commercially available, which of those
technologies could meet the pedigree requirements. Amongst all
technologies studied including bar coding, RFID seemed to be the
most promising and the committee felt that the pedigree requirement
could be met by easily leveraging something that is readily
available. (More details see
RFID-FDA-Regulations)
Telemetry
Active RFID tags also have the potential to function as low-cost
remote sensors that broadcast
telemetry
back to a base station. Applications of tagometry data could
include sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons, weather
reports, and noise level monitoring.
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, the
Wireless
Identification and Sensing Platform is a passive tag that
reports temperature, acceleration and capacitance to commercial
Gen2 RFID readers.
It is possible that active or semi-passive RFID tags used with or
in place of barcodes could broadcast a signal to an in-store
receiver to determine whether the RFID tag (product) is in the
store.
Identification of patients and hospital staff
In July 2004, the US
Food
and Drug Administration issued a ruling that essentially begins
a final review process that will determine whether hospitals can
use RFID systems to identify patients and/or permit relevant
hospital staff to access
medical
records. Since then, a number of U.S. hospitals have begun
implanting patients with RFID tags and using RFID systems, usually
for workflow and inventory management. There is some evidence, as
well, that nurses and other hospital staff may be subjected to
increased surveillance of their activities or to labor
intensification as a result of the implementation of RFID systems
in hospitals.The use of RFID to prevent mixups between
sperm and
ova in
IVF clinics is also being considered
[25573].
In October 2004, the FDA approved USA's first RFID chips that can
be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz RFID chips, from VeriChip
Corp. can incorporate personal medical information and could save
lives and limit injuries from errors in medical treatments,
according to the company. The FDA approval was disclosed during a
conference call with investors. Shortly after the approval, authors
and anti-RFID activists
Katherine
Albrecht and
Liz McIntyre
discovered a warning letter from the FDA that spelled out serious
health risks associated with the VeriChip.
According to the FDA, these include "adverse tissue reaction",
"migration of the implanted transponder", "failure of implanted
transponder", "electrical hazards" and "magnetic resonance imaging
[MRI] incompatibility."
St. Clair Hospital in Pittsburgh has deployed an RFID and barcode
based bedside medication verification system that improves patient
safety by reducing medication errors. Nurses use a PDA equipped
with a portable RFID reader and barcode scanner to check patient ID
and medications before administering any drugs, including drugs
delivered through IV pumps.
To combat home health fraud, the Centers for Medicare &
Medicaid Services recently announced heightened scrutiny of the
home health care industry. In March, 2009, Elite Medical Supply, a
durable medical equipment supplier in New York were one of the
first to sign on to combat Medical fraud. They selected CYBRA's
EdgeMagic RFID and Bar Code Software to rollout the process.
[25574]
Regulation and standardization
There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used
for RFID. In principle, every country can set its own rules for
this. The main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID are:
Low-frequency (LF: 125–134.2 kHz and 140–148.5 kHz)
(LowFID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) (HighFID)
tags can be used globally without a license. Ultra-high-frequency
(UHF: 868–928 MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags cannot be
used globally as there is no single global standard. In North
America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902–928& MHz
(±13 MHz from the 915 MHz center frequency), but
restrictions exist for transmission power. In Europe, RFID and
other low-power radio applications are regulated by
ETSI recommendations
EN 300
220 and
EN 302 208, and
ERO recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with
somewhat complex band restrictions from 865–868 MHz. Readers
are required to monitor a channel before transmitting ("Listen
Before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on
performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current
research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France
as it interferes with its military bands. For China and Japan,
there is no regulation for the use of UHF. Each application for UHF
in these countries needs a site license, which needs to be applied
for at the local authorities, and can be revoked. For Australia and
New Zealand, 918–926 MHz are unlicensed, but restrictions
exist for transmission power.
These frequencies are known as the
ISM
bands (Industrial Scientific and Medical bands). The return
signal of the tag may still cause
interference for other radio
users.
Some
standards that have been made
regarding RFID technology include:
- ISO 14223/1 – Radio frequency
identification of Animals, advanced transponders – Air
interface
- ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is a
popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs which is being
used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303.
- ISO 15693: This is also a popular HF
(13.56 MHz) standard for HighFIDs widely used for non-contact
smart payment and credit cards.
- ISO/IEC 18000: Information
technology — Radio frequency identification for item management:
- Part 1: Reference architecture and definition of parameters to
be standardized
- Part 2: Parameters for air interface communications below
135 kHz
- Part 3: Parameters for air interface communications at
13.56& MHz; MODE 1 and MODE
2.
- Part 4: Parameters for air interface communications at
2.45 GHz
- Part 6: Parameters for air interface communications at
860-960 MHz
- Part 7: Parameters for active air interface communications at
433 MHz
- ISO 18185: This is the industry
standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" for tracking cargo
containers using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz
frequencies.
- EPCglobal – this is the
standardization framework that is most likely to undergo
International Standardisation according to ISO rules as with all
sound standards in the world, unless residing with limited scope,
as customs regulations, air-traffic regulations and others.
Currently the big distributors and governmental customers are
pushing EPC heavily as a standard well-accepted in their community,
but not yet regarded as for salvation to the rest of the
world.
- ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for
Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or Unitized
Loads
- ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for
Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) Transponders on Loaded Containers
- ASTM D7580 Standard Test Method for Rotary
Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining the Readability of Passive
RFID Transponders on Homogenous Palletized or Unitized Loads
EPC Gen2
EPC Gen2 is short for
EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation
2.
EPCglobal (a joint venture between
GS1 and
GS1 US) is working
on international standards for the use of mostly passive RFID and
the
EPC in the
identification of many items in the
supply
chain for companies worldwide.
One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the Babel of
protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s. Two tag air
interfaces (the protocol for exchanging information between a tag
and a reader) were defined (but not ratified) by EPCglobal prior to
2003. These protocols, commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw
significant commercial implementation in 2002–2005.
In 2004 the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, the Class
1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of problems that
had been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2
standard was approved in December 2004, and is likely to form the
backbone of passive RFID tag standards moving forward. This was
approved after a contention from
Intermec
that the standard may infringe a number of their RFID-related
patents. It was decided that the standard itself does not infringe
their patents, but that it may be necessary to pay royalties to
Intermec if the tag is to be read in a
particular manner. The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with minor
modifications as ISO 18000-6C in 2006.
The lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay is offered by
SmartCode at a price of $0.05 apiece in volumes of
100 million or more. Nevertheless, further conversion (including
additional label stock or encapsulation processing/insertion and
freight costs to a given facility or DC) and of the inlays into
usable RFID labels and the design of current Gen 2 protocol
standard will increase the total end-cost, especially with the
added security feature extensions for RFID Supply Chain item-level
tagging.
Here is the
full list of the update on UHF Gen2 Regulation
around the world. The list is updated at 2009 January.
Commercialization
HighFID (13.56 MHz) is at the point of commercial
viability.
Problems and concerns
Global standardization
The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible
with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard
has yet become as universal as the
barcode.
Security concerns
A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID
tags. Tags which are world-readable pose a risk to both personal
location privacy and corporate/military security.
Such concerns have
been raised with respect to the United
States Department of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain
management. More generally, privacy organizations have
expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed
electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products.
EPCglobal Network, by design, is also susceptible to
DoS attacks. Using similar
mechanism with
DNS in resolving
EPC data requests, the ONS Root servers become vulnerable to DoS
attacks. Any organization planning to embark on EPCglobal Network
may cringe upon discovering that the EPCglobal Network
infrastructure inherits security weaknesses similar to DNS'.
A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning.
Some tags use a form of "
rolling code"
scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after each
scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. More
sophisticated devices engage in
Challenge-response
authentications where the tag interacts with the reader. In
these protocols, secret tag information is never sent over the
insecure communication channel between tag and reader. Rather, the
reader issues a challenge to the tag, which responds with a result
computed using a cryptographic circuit keyed with some secret
value. Such protocols may be based on
symmetric or
public key cryptography.
Cryptographically-enabled tags typically have dramatically higher
cost and power requirements than simpler equivalents, and as a
result, deployment of these tags is much more limited. This
cost/power limitation has led some manufacturers to implement
cryptographic tags using substantially weakened, or proprietary
encryption schemes, which do not necessarily resist sophisticated
attack.
For example, the Exxon-Mobil Speedpass uses a cryptographically-enabled tag
manufactured by Texas
Instruments
, called the Digital Signature Transponder
(DST), which incorporates a weak, proprietary encryption scheme to perform a challenge-response
protocol for lower cost.
Still other cryptographic protocols attempt to achieve privacy
against unauthorized readers, though these protocols are largely in
the research stage. One major challenge in securing RFID tags is a
shortage of computational resources within the tag. Standard
cryptographic techniques require more resources than are available
in most low cost RFID devices.
RSA
Security has patented a prototype device that locally jams RFID
signals by interrupting a standard collision avoidance protocol,
allowing the user to prevent identification if desired. Various
policy measures have also been proposed, such as marking
RFID-tagged objects with an industry standard label. RFID security
is a very active research field for a few years, with more than 400
scientific papers published since 2002. An extensive list of
references in this field can be found at the
RFID Security and
Privacy Lounge .
Exploitation
Ars Technica reported in March
2006 an RFID
buffer overflow bug
that could infect airport terminal RFID databases for baggage, and
also passport databases to obtain confidential information on the
passport holder.
Passports
In an effort to make passports more secure, several countries have
implemented RFID in passports. However, the encryption on UK chips
was broken in under 48 hours. Since that incident, further efforts
have allowed researchers to clone passport data while the passport
is being mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to
secretly open and then reseal the envelope, now it can be done
without detection, adding some degree of insecurity to the passport
system.
Shielding
A number of products are available on the market that will allow a
concerned carrier of RFID-enabled cards or passports to shield
their data. In fact the United States government requires their new
employee ID cards to be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve
or holder. There are contradicting opinions as to whether aluminum
can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim that aluminum
shielding, essentially creating a
Faraday
cage, does work. Others claim that simply wrapping an RFID card
in aluminum foil, only makes transmission more difficult, yet is
not completely effective at preventing it.
Shielding is again a function of the frequency being used.
Low-frequency LowFID tags, like those used in
implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant
to shielding, though thick metal foil will prevent most reads.
High frequency HighFID tags
(13.56 MHz — smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to
shielding and are difficult to read when within a few centimetres
of a metal surface.
UHF
Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and cartons) are difficult to read when
placed within a few millimetres of a metal surface, although their
read range is actually increased when they are spaced 2–4 cm
from a metal due to positive reinforcement of the reflected wave
and the
incident wave at the tag.
UHFID tags can be successfully shielded from most reads by being
placed within an anti-static
plastic
bag.
Controversies
Logo of the anti-RFID campaign by
German privacy group FoeBuD.
Privacy
The use of RFID technology has engendered considerable controversy
and even product
boycotts by consumer
privacy advocates.
Katherine
Albrecht and
Liz McIntyre,
co-founders of CASPIAN (Consumers Against Supermarket Privacy
Invasion and Numbering), are two prominent critics of the
technology who refer to RFID tags as "
spychips". The two main
privacy concerns regarding RFID are:
- Since the owner of an item will not necessarily be aware of the
presence of an RFID tag and the tag can be read at a distance
without the knowledge of the individual, it becomes possible to
gather sensitive data about an individual without consent.
- If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction
with use of a loyalty card, then it
would be possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the
purchaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item (contained
in the RFID tag). This is only true if the person doing the
watching also had access to the loyalty card data and the credit
card data, and the person with the equipment knows where you are
going to be.
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags affixed to
products remain functional even after the products have been
purchased and taken home and thus can be used for
surveillance and other purposes unrelated to
their supply chain inventory functions.
The concerns raised by the above may be addressed in part by use of
the
Clipped Tag. The Clipped Tag is an
RFID tag designed to increase consumer privacy. The Clipped Tag has
been suggested by
IBM researchers
Paul Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the
point of sale, a consumer may tear off a portion of the tag. This
allows the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity tag
that still may be read, but only at short range – less than a few
inches or centimeters. The modification of the tag may be confirmed
visually. The tag may still be used later for returns, recalls, or
recycling.
However, read range is both a function of the reader and the tag
itself. Improvements in technology may increase read ranges for
tags. Having readers very close to the tags makes short range tags
readable. Generally, the read range of a tag is limited to the
distance from the reader over which the tag can draw enough energy
from the reader field to power the tag. Tags may be read at longer
ranges than they are designed for by increasing reader power. The
limit on read distance then becomes the signal-to-noise ratio of
the signal reflected from the tag back to the reader. Researchers
at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive
Ultra-HighFID tags, not of the HighFID type used in US passports,
normally read at ranges of up to 30 feet, can be read at ranges of
50 to 69 feet using suitable equipment.
In
January 2004 privacy advocates from CASPIAN
and the German privacy group FoeBuD were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pilot project was
implemented. It was uncovered by accident that METRO
"Payback" customer
loyalty cards
contained RFID tags with customer IDs, a fact that was disclosed
neither to customers receiving the cards, nor to this group of
privacy advocates. This happened despite assurances by METRO that
no customer identification data was tracked and all RFID usage was
clearly disclosed.
During the UN
World Summit on the
Information Society (WSIS) between the 16th to 18th of
November, 2005, founder of the
free software movement,
Richard Stallman, protested the use of RFID
security cards. During the first meeting, it was agreed that future
meetings would no longer use RFID cards, and upon finding out this
assurance was broken, he covered his card with aluminum foil, and
would only uncover it at the security stations. This protest caused
the security personnel considerable concern, with some not allowing
him to leave a conference room in which he had been the main
speaker, and the prevention of him entering another conference
room, where he was due to speak.
In 2004-2005 the
Federal Trade
Commission Staff conducted a workshop and review of RFID
privacy concerns and issued a report recommending best
practices.
RFID was
one of the main topics of 2006 Chaos Communication Congress
(organized by the Chaos Computer
Club in Berlin) and
triggered a big press debate. Topics included: electronic
passports, Mifare cryptography and the tickets for the FIFA World
Cup 2006. Talks showed how the first real world mass application of
RFID technology at the 2006 FIFA Soccer World Cup worked. Group
monochrom staged a special 'Hack RFID'
song.
Zeitgeist The Movie theorised
that RFID chips will one day be used to track the world population
and keep them under control. Due to the nature of this film, they
are presented as a negative technology.
Human implantation
The
Food and Drug
Administration in the US has approved the use of RFID chips in
humans.
Some business establishments give customers
the option of using an RFID-based tab to pay for service, such as
the Baja Beach nightclub in Barcelona. This has provoked concerns into privacy of
individuals as they can potentially be tracked wherever they go by
an identifier unique to them. There are concerns this could lead to
abuse by an authoritarian government or lead to removal of
freedoms.
On
July 22,
2006,
Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a
conference in New York City showed that they could clone the RFID
signal from a human implanted RFID chip, showing that the chip is
not hack-proof as was previously claimed.
Surgery, even on a small scale, comes with its risks. The RFID chip
implantation is no exception. According to David B. Smith, the
author of “Using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology
in Humans in the United States for Total Control,”
[25575] Smith gives the examples of health
risks such as “…adverse tissues reaction migration of implanted
transponder, compromised information security, failure of implanted
transponder, failure of insertion, failure of electronic scanner,
electromagnetic interference electrical hazards, magnetic resonance
imaging incompatibility, and needle stick” (38). Risk like these
can happen to anyone.
Government control
With the rise of microtechnology, some individuals have grown to
fear the loss of rights due to RFID human implantation. VeriChip is
working on an RFID implant which will have GPS tracking ability.
This technology will allow not only an individual, but every
physical object in existence to be geographically located at any
and all times by the American government. While this technology
could aid in locating missing children or fugatives, it also allows
the government the ability to monitor anyone and anything that has
the RFID chip. Furthermore, this theoretically could be done
without the knowledge or consent of the individual. That is where
in lies the context of controversy.
Earlier in the year 2007, in San Francisco California, Chris Paget
showed that RFID information can be pulled from individuals by
using only $250 worth of equipment. This supports the claim that
with the information captured, it would be relatively simple to
make counterfeit passports.
According to ZDNet, critics believe that this technology will lead
to tracking individuals every movements and will be an invasion of
privacy. The controversy however lies in that critics believe this
power will become abused by the government. Some conceptualize a
future where every movement is tracked by the government. In
Katherine Albrecht's SpyChips: How Major Corporations and
Government Plan to Track Your Every Move with RFID, one is
encouraged to "imagine a world of no privacy. Where your every
purchase is monitored and recorded in a database and your every
belonging is numbered. Where someone many states away or perhaps in
another country has a record of everything you have ever bought.
What's more, they can be tracked and monitored remotely" . Simply
put, conspiracists argue that with RFID chips the government will
be able to breach an individual's privacy unbeknownst to the
person.
See also
References
- http://www.savi.com
- http://www.odintechnologies.com
- Airbus Selects ODIN technologies as Exclusive
Worldwide RFID Partner
- Ants' home search habit uncovered
-
http://www.engadget.com/2007/02/14/hitachis-rfid-powder-freaks-us-the-heck-out
- RFID Wizards Passive RFID Durable Asset Tag
Performance Benchmark Tests
- http://www.banktech.com/architecture-infrastructure
- Datatilsynet misfornøyd med nye pass - digi.no also in
Biometric passport#Norway
-
http://www.bmeia.gv.at/en/embassy/ottawa/practical-advice/austrians-in-canada/passport.html
- RFID payment carrier
- * USDA Bets the Farm on Animal ID Program
- RFID's
reduction of Out-of-Stock study at Wal-Mart, RFID Radio
- RFID's Second Wave, BusinessWeek
- DFARS 252.211-7006 clause (a) (2).
- Barcelona clubbers get chipped. BBC News, 29
Sep 2004
-
http://www.spychips.com/press-releases/mexican-implant-correction.html
- High-tech cloning
- Vericip hacked press release, Spychips
- Radio Frequency Identification: An Introduction for Library
Professionals. Alan Butters. Australasian Public Libraries
v19.n4(2006) pp.2164–174.
- "The State of RFID Applications in Libraries." Jay Singh et al.
Information Technology & Libraries no.1(Mar.2006)
pp.24–32.
- "Radio Frequency Identification." Rachel Wadham. "Library
Mosaics" v14 no.5 (S/O 2003) pg.22.
- AudioIndex - the Talking Library, Retrieved on
2007-07-25
- "RFID Poses No Problem for Patron Privacy." "American
Libraries" v34 no11 (D 2003) pg.86.
- http://networks.silicon.com/lans/0,39024663,39122042,00.htm
Schoolchildren to be RFID-chipped
- Schoolkid chipping trial 'a success'
- S. Hsi en H. Fait, "RFID enhances visitors Museum Experience at
the Exploratorium," Communications of the ACM 48, 9 (2005): 60
- Social
Shopping in a Fully Enabled RFID Store, RFID Radio
- US Customs and Border Protection NEXUS website
US Customs and Border Protection SENTRI
website
- NADRA Driving License NADRA Driving License
- Some
Hot North American RFID Applications, RFID Radio
- "Newscripts", Chemical & Engineering News magazine, Vol. 86
No. 31, August 04, 2008, page 56
- Rite Aid Embarks on Item-Level Tracking Pilot,
RFID Journal
- http://www.dipole.es/index_ing.html
- http://www.touchatag.com
- Making
Business Sense of Real Time Location Systems (RTLS), RFID
Radio
- Santiago Depares
- Martein Meints (2007), D3.7 A Structured Collection on
Information and Literature on Technological and Usability Aspects
of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), FIDIS deliverable 3(7),
June 2007. [1]
- Fisher, Jill A. 2006. Indoor Positioning and Digital
Management: Emerging Surveillance Regimes in Hospitals. In T.
Monahan (Ed), Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics
and Power in Everyday Life (pp. 77–88). New York:
Routledge.[2]
- Fisher, Jill A. and Monahan, Torin. Tracking the Social
Dimensions of RFID Systems in Hospitals. International Journal of
Medical Informatics 77 (3): 176-183.[3]
- Bacheldor, Beth. "RFID-enabled Handheld Helps Nurses Verify
Meds." RFID Journal. July 2007. [4]
- Markus Hansen, Sebastian Meissner: Identification and Tracking of Individuals and
Social Networks using the Electronic Product Code on RFID Tags,
IFIP Summer School, Karlstad, 2007, Slides.
- FTC "Radio Frequency Identification: Applications and
Implications for Consumers" (March 2005)
http://www.ftc.gov/os/2005/03/050308rfidrpt.pdf Retrieved
2008-01-29.
- Monahan, Torin and Tyler Wall. 2007. Somatic Surveillance:
Corporeal Control through Information Networks. Surveillance &
Society 4 (3): 154-173.[5]
- Reuters
- [6]
- [7]
- [8]
- [9]
External links
and surrounding areas, Electronic Road Pricing systems are
used to collect toll payments on Highway
407.
Metrorail became
the first U.S. urban mass-transit system to use RFID technology
when it introduced the SmarTrip card in
1999.
's subway,
streetcar, and bus system in 2006, replacing the decades old token
based fare collection system.
) for fare payment on the New York City Subway and
Buses, and as an eventual replacement for the MetroCard.
(Colombia) the recently-implemented card system for
the Masivo Integrado de
Occidente(MIO) system uses an RFID card.
the Orca Card was
introduced in 2009 for fares on buses, ferries, light rail, a
street car, and commuter trains. In Tacoma,
Washington
, a sticker tag is used for paying the toll of the
Tacoma
Narrows Bridge
.
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