The
Rockefeller Foundation is a prominent philanthropic organization and private foundation based at 420 Fifth
Avenue, New York
City
. The preeminent institution established by
the six-generation
Rockefeller
family, it was founded by
John
D. Rockefeller ("Senior"),
along with his son
John D.
Rockefeller, Jr.
("Junior"), and Senior's principal business and philanthropic
advisor,
Frederick T. Gates, in New York State in 1913.
Its central historical mission is "to promote the well-being of
mankind throughout the world."
Some of its achievements include:
- Financially supported education in the United States "without
distinction of race, sex or creed";
- Established the first schools of public health;
- Developed the vaccine to prevent yellow
fever;
- Funded the original development of the social sciences;
- Supported the establishment of a large range of American and
international cultural institutions;
- Funded agricultural development to expand food supplies around
the world.
The
endowment's
assets were $3.7 billion at year-end 2006, and ranks
15th in total assets, out of all foundations in the United States.
Although it is no longer the
largest foundation by
assets, the Rockefeller Foundation's pre-eminent legacy ranks
it among the most impactful and influential NGOs in the world. By
year-end 2007 assets were tallied at $4,615,428,564. The
Chronicle of
Philanthropy reported the foundation's 2007 grants to be
an estimated $164 million, with total expenses of about $199.5
million.
Leadership
The
current president of the foundation is Judith Rodin Ph.D., former president of the
University of
Pennsylvania
, who succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005 and is the
first woman ever to head the foundation. She has set out on
an agenda to change the traditional organizational structure and
identify the major 21st-century trends that could be affected by
the foundation. It now seeks out high-impact ideas that can
potentially make a difference in the lives of large numbers of poor
or vulnerable people, with measurable results within three to five
years.
Beginnings

Original Rockefeller logo, no longer
in use
Rockefeller's interest in philanthropy on a large scale began in
1889, influenced by
Andrew
Carnegie's published essay,
The Gospel of Wealth, which
prompted him to write a letter to Carnegie praising him as an
example to other rich men.
It was in that year that he made the first of
what would become $35 million in gifts, over a period of two
decades, to fund the University of Chicago
.
His initial idea to set up a large-scale tax-exempt foundation
occurred in 1901, but it was not until 1906 that Senior's famous
business and philanthropic advisor,
Frederick T. Gates, seriously revived the idea, saying
that Rockefeller's fortune was rolling up so fast his heirs would
"dissipate their inheritances or become intoxicated with power",
unless he set up "permanent corporate philanthropies for the good
of Mankind".
It was also in 1906 that the
Russell Sage Foundation was
established, though its program was limited to working women and
social ills. Rockefeller's would thus not be the first foundation
in America (
Benjamin Franklin was
the first to introduce the concept), but it brought to it
unprecedented international scale and scope. In 1909 he signed over
73,000 shares of
Standard Oil of New
Jersey, valued at $50 million, to the three inaugural trustees,
Junior, Gates and
Harold
McCormick, the first installment of a projected $100 million
endowment.
They applied for a federal
charter for the
foundation in the
US Senate in 1910, with
at one stage Junior even secretly meeting with President
William Howard Taft, through the aegis
of Senator
Nelson Aldrich, to hammer
out concessions. However, because of the ongoing (1911) antitrust
suit against Standard Oil at the time, along with deep suspicion in
some quarters of undue Rockefeller influence on the spending of the
endowment, the end result was that Senior and Gates withdrew the
bill from Congress in order to seek a state charter.
On May 14, 1913, New York Governor
William Sulzer approved a state charter for
the foundation - two years after the
Carnegie Corporation - with Junior
becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a
large part of Senior's fortune was insulated from inheritance
taxes. The total benefactions of both him and Junior and their
philanthropies in the end would far surpass Carnegie's endowments,
his biographer Ron Chernow states, ranking Rockefeller as "the
greatest philanthropist in American history."
Early grants and connections
The first
Secretary of the foundation was Jerome Davis Greene, the former
Secretary of Harvard
University
, who wrote a "memorandum on principles and
policies” for an early meeting of the trustees that established a
rough framework for the foundation's work. On December 5, the
Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property
for its headquarters in Washington, D.C.
At the beginning the foundation was global
in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on
the sciences, public health and medical education.
It was
initially located within the family
office at Standard Oil's
headquarters at 26
Broadway
, later (in
1933) shifting to the GE
Building
(then
RCA), along with the newly-named family office,
Room 5600, at Rockefeller Center
; later it moved to the Time-Life
Building
in the Center, before shifting to its current Fifth
Avenue address.
In 1913 the foundation set up the
International Health
Commission (later Board), the first appropriation of funds for
work outside the US, which launched the foundation into
international public health activities. This expanded the work of
the Sanitary Commission worldwide, working against various diseases
in fifty-two countries on six continents and twenty-nine islands,
bringing international recognition of the need for public health
and environmental sanitation. Its early field research on
hookworm,
malaria, and
yellow fever provided the basic
techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of
modern public health services.
The Commission established and endowed the world's first school of
Hygiene and Public Health, at
Johns Hopkins University, and later
at Harvard, and then spent more than $25 million in developing
other public health schools in the US and in 21 foreign countries -
helping to establish America as the world leader in medicine and
scientific research. In 1913 it also began a 20-year support
program of the
Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was
research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex
education.
In 1914 the foundation set up the
China Medical Board, which
established the first public health university in China, the
Peking Union Medical College, in 1921; this was
subsequently nationalised when the Communists took over the country
in 1949. In the same year it began a program of international
fellowships to train scholars at the world’s leading universities
at the post-doctoral level; a fundamental commitment to the
education of future leaders.
Also in 1914, the trustees set up a new Department of Industrial
Relations, inviting
William
Lyon MacKenzie King to head it. He became a close and key
advisor to Junior through the
Ludlow
massacre, turning around his attitude to unions; however the
foundation's involvement in IR was criticized for advancing the
family's business interests. It henceforth confined itself to
funding responsible organizations involved in this and other
controversial fields, which were beyond the control of the
foundation itself.
Through the
Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial,
established by
John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. in 1918
and named after his mother, the family shifted the focus of
philanthropy into the social sciences, stimulating the founding of
university research centres and creating the
Social Science Research
Council. This memorial fund was subsequently folded into the
foundation in a major reorganization in 1928/9.
John D. Rockefeller, Jr. became the
foundation chairman in 1917. One of the many prominent trustees of
the institution since has been
C.
Douglas Dillon, the
United States Secretary
of the Treasury under both Presidents
John F. Kennedy and
Lyndon B. Johnson. The foundation also supported the
early initiatives of
Henry
Kissinger, such as his directorship of Harvard's
International Seminars and the early foreign policy
magazine
Confluence, both established by him while he was
still a graduate student.
Programs: scale and scope
Through the years the foundation has expanded greatly in scope.
Historically, it has given more than $14 billion in current dollars
to thousands of grantees worldwide and has assisted directly in the
training of nearly 13,000 Rockefeller Fellows.
Its overall philanthropic activity has been divided into five main
subject areas:
- Medical, health, and population sciences,
- Agricultural and natural sciences,
- Arts and humanities,
- Social sciences,
- International relations.
A major program beginning in the 1930s was the relocation of German
(Jewish) scholars from German universities to America. This was
expanded to other European countries after the
Anschluss occurred; when war broke out it
became a full-scale rescue operation. Another program, the
Emergency Rescue Committee was also partly funded with
Rockefeller money; this effort resulted in the rescue of some of
the most famous artists, writers and composers of Europe. Some of
the notable figures relocated or saved (out of a total of 303
scholars) by the Foundation were
Thomas
Mann,
Claude Levi-Strauss
and
Leo Szilard, enriching intellectual
life and academic disciplines in the US. This came to light
afterwards through a brief, unpublished history of the Foundation's
program.
Another significant program was its Medical Sciences Division,
which extensively funded women's contraception and the human
reproductive system in general. Other funding went into
endocrinology departments in American
universities, human heredity, mammalian biology, human physiology
and anatomy,
psychology, and the
pioneering studies of human sexual behavior by Dr.
Alfred Kinsey.
In 1950
the Foundation mounted a major program of virus research,
establishing field laboratories in Poona,
India; Port of
Spain
, Trinidad; Belem, Brazil;
Johannesburg
, South Africa; Cairo
, Egypt;
Ibadan
, Nigeria; and Cali
,
Colombia. In time, major funding was also contributed by the
countries involved, while in Trinidad the
British government and neighbouring
British-controlled territories also assisted. Sub-professional
staff were almost all recruited locally and, wherever possible,
local people were given scholarships and other support to be
professionally trained. In most cases, locals eventually took over
management of the facilities. Support was also given to research on
viruses in many other countries. The result of all this research
was the identification of a huge number of viruses affecting
humans, the development of new techniques for the rapid
identification of viruses, and a quantum leap in our understanding
of
anthropod-borne viruses.
In the
arts it has helped establish or support the Stratford Shakespearean
Festival in Ontario,
Canada
, and the American Shakespeare Festival in Stratford,
Connecticut
; Arena
Stage
in Washington, D.C.
; Karamu House in Cleveland, Ohio
; and Lincoln
Center for the Performing Arts
in New York. In a recent shift in program
emphasis, President Rodin eliminated the division that spent money
on the arts, the creativity and culture program.
One program that
signals the shift was the foundation's support as the underwriter
of Spike Lee's documentary on New Orleans
, When the
Levees Broke. The film has been used as the basis
for a curriculum on poverty, developed by the Teachers College at
Columbia University for their
students.
Thousands of scientists and scholars from all over the world have
received foundation fellowships and scholarships for advanced study
in major scientific disciplines. In addition, the foundation has
provided significant and often substantial research grants to
finance conferences and assist with published studies, as well as
funding departments and programs, to a vast range of foreign policy
and educational organizations, some of which include:
==The Green Revolution==sssAgriculture was introduced to the
Natural Sciences division of the foundation in the major
reorganization of 1928.
In 1941, the foundation gave a small grant
to Mexico
for maize
research, in collaboration with the then new president, Manuel Avila Camacho. This was
done after the intervention of vice-president
Henry Wallace and the involvement of
Nelson Rockefeller; the primary intention
being to stabilise the Mexican Government and derail any possible
communist infiltration, in order to protect the Rockefeller
family's investments.
By 1943
this program, under the foundation's Mexican Agriculture
Project, had proved such a success with the science of corn
propagation and general principles of agronomy that it was exported to other Latin
American countries; in 1956 the program was then taken to India
; again with
the geopolitical imperative of providing an antidote to
communism. It wasn't until 1959 that senior foundation
officials succeeded in getting the
Ford
Foundation (and later
USAID, and later
still, the
World Bank) to sign on to the
major philanthropic project, known now to the world as the
Green Revolution.
It also provided
significant funding for the International Rice
Research Institute in the Philippines
. Part of the original program, the funding
of the IRRI was later taken over by the Ford Foundation.
Costing around $600 million, over 50 years, the revolution brought
new farming technology, increased productivity, expanded crop
yields and mass fertilization to many countries throughout the
world. Later it funded over $100 million dollars of plant
biotechnology research and trained over four
hundred scientists from Asia, Africa and Latin America. It also
invested in the production of
transgenic
crops, including rice and maize. In 1999, the then president Gordon
Conway addressed the
Monsanto
Company board of directors, warning of the possible social and
environmental dangers of this biotechnology, and requesting them to
disavow the use of so-called terminator genes; the company later
complied.
In the 1990s the foundation shifted its agriculture work and
emphasis to Africa; in 2006 it joined with the
Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation in a $150 million effort to fight hunger in the
continent through improved agricultural productivity.
The Bellagio Center
The foundation also owns and operates the Rockefeller Foundation
Bellagio Center in Bellagio, Italy. The Center comprises several
buildings, spread across a property, on the peninsula between lakes
Como and Lecco in Northern Italy. The Center is sometimes
colloquially referred to as the
Villa Serbelloni. The
Villa is only one of the many buildings in which residents and
conference participants are housed. The property was bequeathed to
the Foundation in 1959 under the presidency of
Dean Rusk (who was later to become
U.S. President Kennedy's secretary of state).
The Bellagio Center operates both a conference center and a
residency program. The residency program is a competitive program
to which scholars, artists, writers, musicians, scientists,
policymakers and development professionals from around the world
can apply to work on a project of their own choosing for a period
of two to six weeks.
Family involvement
Over the decades the Rockefeller family has generally distanced
itself from direct involvement as trustees in the foundation's
management, to maintain the foundation's independence and avoid
charges of undue family influence. Family members were actively
involved from the outset but later were limited to one or two
representatives, such as the former president
John D. Rockefeller 3rd, and then his son
John D. Rockefeller, IV, who gave up the
trusteeship in 1981. In 1989,
David
Rockefeller's daughter,
Peggy
Dulany, was appointed to the board for a five-year term.
In October 2006 the foundation announced that
David Rockefeller, Jr. had joined the
board of trustees, re-establishing the direct family link and
becoming the sixth family member overall to serve on the board.
This is unlike the
Ford Foundation,
which has permanently severed all direct links with the Ford
family.
The foundation also has traditionally held a major portion of its
shares portfolio in the family's oil companies, beginning with
Standard Oil and now with its corporate
descendants, including
Exxon
Mobil.
Historical legacy
The second-oldest major philanthropic institution in America after
the Carnegie Corporation, the foundation's impact on philanthropy
in general has been profound. It has supported
United Nations programs throughout its
history, such as the recent
First Global Forum On Human
Development, organized by the
United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) in 1999.
[31957]
The early institutions it set up have served as models for current
organizations: the UN's
World
Health Organization, set up in 1948, is modeled on the
International Health Division; the U.S.
Government's National Science Foundation
(1950) on its approach in support of research, scholarships and
institutional development; and the National
Institute of Health
(1950) imitated its longstanding medical
programs.
Notable current trustees
- Ann M. Fudge
- Rajat Gupta
- Jessica T. Mathews
- Sandra Day O'Connor
- James F. Orr, III, (Board Chair)
- President and Chief Executive Officer, LandingPoint Capital,
Boston, Massachusetts.
- Mamphela Ramphele
- Chairperson, Circle Capital Ventures, Cape Town, South
Africa.
- David Rockefeller, Jr.
- Vice
Chairman of Rockefeller Family & Associates; Director
and former Chair, Rockefeller & Co., Inc.; current
Trustee of the Museum of Modern Art
.
- Raymond W. Smith
Notable past trustees
- Alan Alda, 1989-1994 - Actor and film
director.
- Winthrop W. Aldrich 1935-1951 - Chairman of the
Chase National Bank, 1934-1953;
Ambassador to the Court of St. James, 1953-1957.
- John W. Davis 1922-1939 - J. P. Morgan's private attorney; founding president
of the Council on Foreign
Relations.
- C. Douglas Dillon 1960-1961 - US Treasury
Secretary, 1961-1965; Member of the Council on Foreign
Relations.
- Orvil E. Dryfoos 1960-1963 - Publisher of the
New York Times, 1961-1963.
- Peggy Dulany, 1989-1994 - Fourth
child of David Rockefeller; Founder and president of
Synergos.
- John Foster Dulles 1935-1952
{Chairman} - US Secretary of State, 1953-1959; Senior partner,
Sullivan & Cromwell law
firm.
- Charles
William Eliot 1914-1917 - President of Harvard
, 1869-1909.
- Frederick T. Gates 1913-1923 - John D. Rockefeller
Sr.'s principal advisor.
- Stephen Jay Gould 1993-2002 -
Author; Professor and Curator, Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University.
- Wallace
Harrison 1951-1961 - Rockefeller family architect; lead
architect for the UN
Headquarters
complex.
- Charles Evans Hughes
1917-1921;1925-1928 - Chief Justice of the United States,
1930-1941.
- Robert A. Lovett 1949-1961 - US Secretary of Defense,
1951-1953.
- Yo-Yo Ma 1999-2002 - Cellist.
- John J. McCloy Chairman: 1946-1949;1953-1958 -
Prominent US Presidential Advisor; Chairman of the Ford Foundation, 1958-1965; Chairman of the
Council on Foreign Relations.
- Bill Moyers 1969-1981 -
Journalist.
- John D. Rockefeller 1913-1923.
- John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Chairman:
1917-1939.
- John D. Rockefeller 3rd Chairman:
1952-1972.
- John D. Rockefeller, IV 1976-81.
- Julius Rosenwald 1917-1931 -
Chairman of Sears Roebuck,
1932-1939.
- Dean Rusk 1950-1961 - US Secretary of
State, 1961-1969.
- Frank Stanton 1961-1966? -
President of CBS, 1946-1971.
- Arthur Hays Sulzberger
1939-1957 - Publisher of the New York
Times, 1935-1961.
- Paul Volker 1975-1979 - Chairman,
Board of Governors, Federal Reserve Board; President, NY Federal
Reserve Bank.
- Thomas J. Watson, Jr 1963-1968? - President of
IBM, 1952-1971.
- James Wolfensohn - Former
President of the World Bank.
- George D. Woods 1961-1967? - President of the World
Bank, 1963-1968.
- Owen D. Young 1928-1939 - Chairman of GE, 1922-1939, 1942-1945.
Presidents
- Judith Rodin - 2005-
- Gordon Conway - 1998-2004
- Peter Goldmark, Jr. - 1988-1997
- Richard Lyman - 1980-1988
- John Knowles - 1972-1979
- J. George Harrar - 1961-1972
- Dean Rusk - 1952-1961
- Chester Barnard - 1948-1952
- Raymond Fosdick - 1936-1948
- Max Mason - 1929-1936
- George Vincent - 1917-1929
- John D. Rockefeller, Jr. - 1913-1917.
Bibliography
- Berman, Edward H. The Ideology of Philanthropy: The
influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller foundations on
American foreign policy, New York: State University of New
York Press, 1983.
- Brown, E. Richard, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism
in America, Berkeley: University of California Press,
1979.
- Chernow, Ron, Titan: The Life of John D.
Rockefeller, Sr., London: Warner Books, 1998.
- Dowie, Mark, American Foundations: An Investigative
History, Boston: The MIT Press, 2001.
- Fisher, Donald, Fundamental Development of the Social
Sciences: Rockefeller Philanthropy and the United States Social
Science Research Council, Michigan: University of Michigan
Press, 1993.
- Fosdick, Raymond B., John D. Rockefeller, Jr., A
Portrait, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956.
- Fosdick, Raymond B., The Story of the Rockefeller
Foundation, New York: Transaction Publishers, Reprint,
1989.
- Harr, John Ensor, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller
Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988.
- Harr, John Ensor, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller
Conscience: An American Family in Public and in Private, New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1991.
- Jonas, Gerald. The Circuit Riders: Rockefeller Money and
the Rise of Modern Science. New York: W.W. Norton and Co.,
1989.
- Kay, Lily, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the
Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology, New
York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
- Lawrence, Christopher. Rockefeller Money, the Laboratory
and Medicine in Edinburgh 1919-1930: New Science in an Old
Country, Rochester Studies in Medical History, University of
Rochester Press, 2005.
- Nielsen, Waldemar, The Big Foundations, New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1973.
- Rockefeller, David, Memoirs, New York: Random House,
2002.
- Shaplen, Robert, Toward the Well-Being of Mankind: Fifty
Years of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York: Doubleday &
Company, Inc., 1964.
- Theiler, Max and Downs, W. G., The Anthropod-Borne Viruses
of Vertebrates: An Account of The Rockefeller Foundation Virus
Program, 1951-1970. (1973) Yale University Press. New Haven
and London. ISBN 0-300-01508-9.
See also
References
Specific references:
- Rockfound.org, history, 1913-1919
- The Foundation Center
- FoundationCenter.org, The Rockefeller Foundation, accessed
2009-06-20
- Amid Strong Returns, a July 24, 2008 article
from the Chronicle of Philanthropy
(retrieved September 15, 2009)
- The Rockefeller Foundation Timeline
- Details of the establishment and future legacy of the
Rockefeller Foundation - see Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of
John D. Rockefeller, Sr., New York: Warner Books, 1998, (pp.
563-566)
- Foundation withdrew from direct involvement in Industrial
Relations - see Robert Shaplen, Toward the Well-Being of
Mankind: Fifty Years of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York:
Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964, (p.128)
- Early backing of Henry Kissinger - see Walter Isaacson,
Kissinger: A Biography, New York: Simon & Schuster,
(updated) 2005, (p.72)
- Rockefeller Archive Center: Main subject
areas.
- Major rescue program of European scholars - see John Ensor Harr
and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Century: Three
Generations of America's Greatest Family, New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1988. (pp.401-03)
- Medical Sciences Division and Alfred Kinsey funding - Ibid.,
(p.456)
- The Anthropod-Borne Viruses of Vertebrates: An Account of
The Rockefeller Foundation Virus Program, 1951-1970, pp. xvii,
xx. Max Theiler
and W. G. Downs.
(1973) Yale University Press. New Haven and London. ISBN
0-300-01508-9.
- New York Times, 2007: Charities Try to Keep Up With the
Gateses
- Funding of programs and fellowships at major universities,
foreign policy think tanks and research councils - see Robert
Shaplen, op, cit., (passim)
- AFP Online
- The story of the Foundation and the Green Revolution - see Mark
Dowie, American Foundations: An Investigative History,
Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2001, (pp.105-140)
- Biotech-info.net: "The Rockefeller Foundation and
Plant Biotechnology"
- Share portfolio - see Waldemar Nielsen The Big
Foundations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1972.
(p.72)
- As model for UN organizations - Ibid., (pp.64-5)
General references:
- Gates, Rockefeller foundations join to fight
hunger in Africa Seattle Post-Intelligencer
article dealing with the Green Revolution and the previous
collaboration with the Ford Foundation.
- "The Rockefeller Foundation and Plant
Biotechnology" Address given in 1999 by former RF president
Gordon Conway to the board of directors of Monsanto, on
biotechnology and the terminator gene.
- Letter in Reply: Open Letter From Monsanto CEO Robert
B. Shapiro To Rockefeller Foundation President Gordon Conway
in 1999
- An Entrepreneurial Spirit: Three Centuries of Rockefeller
Family Philanthropy This 2005 PDF document contains a detailed
history and philosophy of the various Rockefeller philanthropies,
presented by the Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors (RPA),
set up by the family in New York in 2002.
- G30 Members Discuss Critical Concerns For American
Corporations Association for Financial Professionals
2005 article on the Group of Thirty, mentioning the Rockefeller
Foundation's initiation of the Group in 1978.
- CFR Website - Continuing the Inquiry: The Council on
Foreign Relations from 1921 to 1996 The history of the Council
by Peter Grose, a Council member - mentions financial support from
the Rockefeller foundation.
- Oct 17, 2006: David Rockefeller Jr., Ann Fudge,
Rajat Gupta to join Rockefeller Foundation Board of
Trustees
- Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, and ... J.D. Rockefeller?: The Role Of The Rockefeller Foundation in
the History of American Anthropology
- Interview with Norman Dodd An investigation of a
hidden agenda within tax-free foundations, including the
Rockefeller Foundation (Video).
- Time For Ford Foundation & CFR To Divest?
Collaboration of the Rockefeller, Ford and Carnegie Foundations
with the Council on Foreign
Relations.
- 2004: Citigroup Names Anne Mulcahy and Judith Rodin
to Board of Directors
- Foundation Center: Top 100 US Foundations by total
giving
- New York Times: Rockefeller Foundation Elects 5 -
Including Alan Alda and Peggy Dulany
- Rockefeller Foundation: The Bellagio Study and Conference
Center
- SFGate.com: "Eugenics and the Nazis: the California
Connection"
- The Long Road of Eugenics: "From Rockefeller to Roe
v. Wade", Rebecca Messall, Human Life Review, Fall
2004
- Press for Conversion! magazine, Issue # 53: "Facing the
Corporate Roots of American Fascism," Bryan Sanders, Coalition to
Oppose the Arms Trade, March 2004
External links