Salt is a
dietary
mineral composed primarily of
sodium
chloride that is essential for
animal
life, but can be toxic to many
land
plants. Salt
flavor is one of the
basic taste, making salt the
oldest, ubiquitous food seasoning. Salt is also an important
preservative.
Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms:
unrefined salt (such as
sea salt), refined
salt (table salt), and
iodized
salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray
in color, normally obtained from
sea water
or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in
color because of mineral content.
Chloride and
sodium
ions, the two major components of salt, are necessary for the
survival of all known living creatures, including humans. Salt is
involved in regulating the
water content
(
fluid balance) of the body.
Overconsumption of salt increases the risk of health problems,
including
high blood pressure.
History

Solution of salt in water
_Crystal.jpg/180px-Table_Salt_(NaCl)_Crystal.jpg)
Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal
Human beings have used canning and artificial refrigeration for the
preservation of food for approximately the last two hundred years.
However, in the millennia before then, salt provided the best-known
food preservative, especially for meat.
The harvest of salt
from the surface of Xiechi Lake near
Yuncheng
in Shanxi
, China
dates back
to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable
saltworks.
Another
very ancient saltworks operation (rivaling the Xiechi Lake in China
for oldest) has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei
archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca
, Neamt County, Romania
.
Evidence indicates that
Neolithic people
of the
Precucuteni
Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the
process of
briquetage to extract the salt
as far back as 6050 BC. The salt extracted from this operation may
have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's
population soon after its initial production began.
Salt was included among funereal offerings found in
ancient Egyptian tombs from the third
millennium BC, as were salted birds and salt fish.
From about 2800 BC,
the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians
in return for Lebanon
cedar, glass, and the dye Tyrian
purple; the Phoenicians
traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean
trade empire.
Along the
Sahara, the
Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport
of salt by
Azalai (salt caravans). In 1960,
the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this
trade has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.
Salzburg
, Hallstatt
, and Hallein
lie on the
river Salzach in central Austria
, within a
radius of no more than 17 kilometres. Salzach
literally
means "salt water" and Salzburg
"salt city",
both taking their names from the Germanic root for salt, salz.
The
root hal(l)- also gave
us Gaul, the Roman
exonym for the Celts, Halle
and Schwäbisch Hall
in Germany, Halych
in Ukraine,
and Galicia in
Spain
: this list of places named for Celtic saltworks is
far from complete.
Hallstatt gave its name to the
Celtic archaeological culture that began
mining for salt in the area in around 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the
Hallstatt Celts, who had heretofore
mined
for salt, began
open pan salt
making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew
rich trading salt and
salted meat to
Ancient Greece and
Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other
luxuries.
It is widely, though incorrectly, believed that troops in the
Roman army were paid in salt. Even
widely-respected historical works repeat this error. The word
salad literally means "salted," and comes from the
ancient Roman practice of salting
leaf vegetables.
Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100,000
people on the "Dandi March" or "
Salt
Satyagraha", in which protesters made their own salt from the
sea, which was illegal under British rule, as it avoided paying the
"salt tax". This
civil
disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated
the
Indian independence
movement from an elitist struggle to a national struggle.
In religion
In the
King James Bible, forty-one
verses mention salt, the earliest being the story of
Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of
salt when she disobediently looked back at the wicked cities of
Sodom and Gomorrah (
Genesis 19:26).
When King Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem
, he is said
to have "sown salt on it;" a
phrase expressing the completeness of its ruin. (Judges
9:45.) In the
Sermon on the
Mount,
Jesus referred to his followers as
the "
salt of the earth".
The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians
to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with
salt" (Colossians 4:6).
In one of the
Hadith recorded in
Sunan Ibn Majah, Prophet
Muhammad is reported to have said that: "Salt is
the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky
-
fire,
water,
iron and salt"
Salt is mandatory in the rite of the
Tridentine Mass. Salt is used in the third
item (which includes an Exorcism) of the
Celtic Consecration (
cf.
Gallican rite) that is employed in the
consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it
is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of
Holy water.
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in
Hindu mythology, and is used in particular
religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings.
In
Judaism, it is recommended to have either
a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted
when doing
Kidush for
Shabat. It is customary to spread some salt over the
bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread
around the table after the Kidush. To preserve the covenant between
their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.
In
Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element
Earth. It is also used as a purifier of sacred space.
In the native Japanese religion
Shinto, salt
is used for
ritual purification
of locations and people, such as in
sumo
wrestling.
In
Aztec mythology,
Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who
presided over salt and salt water.
The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with
offerings of salt and water. This is thought to be the origin of
the Holy Water used in the Christian faith.
In weather
Small particles of
sea salt are the
dominant
cloud condensation
nuclei well out at sea, which allow the formation of
clouds in otherwise non-polluted
air.
Salt is used for
snow removal, to make
travel easier and safer and decrease the long term impact of a
heavy
snowfall on human populations. Salt and
other chloride-based chemicals reduce snow and ice from road
surfaces and sidewalks by lowering the temperature at which ice
melts.
Forms of salt
Unrefined salt

A commercial pack of sea salt
Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each
one a unique flavor.
Fleur de sel,
natural sea salt harvested by hand, has a unique flavor varying
from region to region.
Some advocates for sea salt assert that unrefined sea salt is
healthier than refined salts. However, completely raw sea salt is
bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds, and thus is
rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies
saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough
iodine salts to prevent
iodine deficiency diseases.
Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in
bathing additives and
cosmetic products.
One example are
bath salts, which uses
sea salt as its main ingredient and
combined with other ingredients used for its healing and
therapeutic effects.
Refined salt
Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium
chloride. Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt
production in
industrialised
countries (3% in Europe) although worldwide, food uses account
for 17.5% of salt production. The majority is sold for industrial
use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary
ingredient in the manufacturing of many things. A few common
examples include: the production of pulp and paper, setting dyes in
textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents.
The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical
industries. Salt can be obtained by evaporation of
sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by
sunlight; salt so obtained was formerly
called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt.
Rock salt deposits are formed by the evaporation of ancient salt
lakes, and may be
mined conventionally or
through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt,
and the
brine solution can be pumped to the
surface where the salt is collected.
After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and
improve its storage and handling characteristics. Purification
usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine
solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities
(largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of
evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals,
which are
kiln-dried.
Single-serving salt packets.
Since the
1950s it has been common to add a trace of sodium ferrocyanide to the brine in the
United
Kingdom
; this acts as an anticaking agent by promoting irregular
crystals. The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food
additive was confirmed in the United Kingdom in 1993. Some
anti-caking agents used are
tricalcium phosphate,
calcium or
magnesium carbonates,
fatty acid salts (
acid
salts),
magnesium oxide,
silicon dioxide,
calcium silicate,
sodium aluminosilicate, and
calcium aluminosilicate. Both the
European Union and the United States
Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) permited the use of
aluminum in the
latter two compounds. The refined salt is then ready for packing
and distribution.
Table salt
Table salt is refined salt, which contains about 97% to 99%
sodium chloride. It usually contains
substances that make it free-flowing (anti-caking agents) such as
sodium silicoaluminate or
magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a
desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked
rice, in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture
and help break up clumps when anti-caking agents are not
enough.Table salt has a
particle
density of 2.165 g/cm , and a
bulk
density (dry,
ASTM D 632 gradation) of
about 1.154 g/cm .
Salty condiments
In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a
condiment. However, condiments such as
soy
sauce,
fish sauce and
oyster sauce tend to have a high salt content
and fill much the same role as a salt-providing table condiment
that table salt serves in western cultures.
Additives
Iodized salt (
BrE:
iodised salt) is table salt mixed with a minute amount of
potassium iodide,
sodium iodide, or
sodium iodate. Iodized salt is used to help
reduce the incidence of
iodine
deficiency in humans. Iodine deficiency commonly leads to
thyroid gland problems, specifically endemic
goiter, a disease characterized by a swelling
of the thyroid gland, usually resulting in a bulbous protrusion on
the neck.
While only tiny quantities of iodine are
required in the diet to prevent
goiter, the United
States
Food and
Drug Administration recommends (21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)) 150
micrograms of iodine per day
for both men and women. Iodized table salt has significantly
reduced disorders of
iodine
deficiency in countries where it is used. Iodine is important
to prevent the insufficient production of
thyroid hormones (
hypothyroidism), which can cause
goitre,
cretinism in
children, and
myxedema in adults.
Table salt is mainly employed in cooking and as a table condiment.
The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt
varies from country to country.
In the United States
, iodized salt contains 46-77 ppm, while in the UK
the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10-22
ppm. Today, iodized salt is more common in the
United
States
, Australia and New Zealand
than in the United Kingdom
.
In some European countries where
drinking water fluoridation is
not practiced, fluorinated table salt is available. In France, 35%
of sold table salt contains either
sodium fluoride or
potassium fluoride. Another additive,
especially important for
pregnant women,
is
folic acid (Vitamin B
9),
which gives the table salt a yellow color.
In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor salt) contains
invert sugar. The reason for this is
unclear.
Sodium ferrocyanide, also known
as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an
anti-caking agent. The additive is considered safe for human
consumption.
Health effects
Sodium is one of the primary
electrolytes in the body. All four cationic
electrolytes (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are
available in unrefined salt, as are other vital minerals needed for
optimal bodily function. Too much or too little salt in the diet
can lead to
muscle cramps,
dizziness, or even an
electrolyte disturbance, which can
cause severe, even fatal, neurological problems. Drinking too much
water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a person at risk of
water intoxication (
hyponatremia). Salt is even sometimes used as a
health aid, such as in treatment of
dysautonomia.
The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake
varies because of biochemical individuality. Some have asserted
that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real, the risks
have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on
the consumption of salt can be interpreted in many different
ways.
Many (though not all scientists) believe that excess salt
consumption has been linked to:
- heartburn.
- osteoporosis: One report shows that
a high salt diet does reduce bone
density in women. Yet "While high salt intakes have been
associated with detrimental effects on bone health, there are
insufficient data to draw firm conclusions."
- Gastric cancer (stomach cancer)
is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the evidence does
not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK."
However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.
- hypertension (high blood pressure): "Since 1994, the evidence of
an association between dietary salt intakes and blood pressure has
increased. The data have been consistent in various study
populations and across the age range in adults." A large scale
study from 2007 has shown that people with high-normal blood
pressure who significantly reduced the amount of salt in their diet
decreased their chances of developing cardiovascular disease by 25% over
the following 10 to 15 years. Their risk of dying from
cardiovascular disease decreased by 20%.
- left ventricular
hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high
salt intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease,
independently of blood pressure effects." "…there is accumulating
evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular
hypertrophy." Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an
inadequate intake of water, can cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.
- edema (BE:
oedema): A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat
edema (fluid retention).
- duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers
- Death. Ingestion of large amounts of salt
in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body weight) can be fatal.
Salt solutions have been used in ancient China as a method of
suicide (especially by the nobility, since salt was quite
valuable). Deaths have also resulted from attempted use of salt
solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and
accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.
Some scientists believe that excess salt intake has no significant
role in hypertension and
coronary
heart disease, as adults' kidneys are able to remove excess
salt.
It is now also believed that excess salt consumption is not linked
to exercise-induced
asthma.
Sea salt (an unrefined form of salt made by evaporating sea water)
is often sold for use as a condiment. Sea salt contains trace
amounts of other minerals which are removed in the refining
process. Certain sea salts are also used in the production of
bath salts and
cosmetic products.
Rock and sea salt are usually referred to and sold as
natrum
muriaticum in
homeopathy, and
purported by followers to be a deep acting and powerful curative
when taken over long periods of time.
Some isolated cultures, such as the
Yanomami in South America, have been found to
consume little salt, possibly an adaptation originated in the
predominantly
vegetarian diet of human
primate ancestors. However, the low salt diets of the Yanomamo
Indians does not result in their low blood pressure, this has been
attributed to their lack of a D/D genotype.
Recommended intake

A salt mill for sea salt.
In the
United
Kingdom
the Scientific Advisory
Committee on Nutrition (SACN) recommended in 2003 that, for a
typical adult, the Reference
Nutrient Intake is 4 g salt per day (1.6 g or 70 mmol
sodium). However, average adult intake is two and a half
times the Reference Nutrient Intake for sodium. SACN states, "The
target salt intakes set for adults and children do not represent
ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population
goals."
The Food Safety Authority of Ireland
endorses the UK targets.
Health Canada recommends an Adequate Intake
(AI) and an Upper Limit (UL) in terms of sodium, as does
the Auckland District Health Board in New Zealand
..
The
NHMRC in
Australia was not able to define a recommended
dietary intake (RDI). It defines an Adequate Intake (AI) for adults
of 460-920 mg/day and an Upper Level of intake (UL) of
2300 mg/day.
In the
United
States
, the Food and Drug Administration itself does not
make a recommendation, but refers readers to Dietary Guidelines
for Americans 2005. These suggest that US citizens
should consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium (= 2.3 g sodium =
5.8 g salt) per day.
Labeling
UK: The
Food Standards Agency
defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more than
1.5g salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium). Low is 0.3g salt or less per
100g (or 0.1g sodium). If the amount of salt per 100g is in between
these figures, then that is a medium level of salt." In the UK,
foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‘traffic
light’ colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium),
or Green (Low).
USA: The FDA
Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food
can be labelled as "free", "low", or "reduced/less" in respect of
sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g. low in
fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the
food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'
Campaigns
In 2004, Britain's
Food Standards
Agency started a
public health
campaign called "Salt - Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g
of salt per day; it features a character called
Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt
Manufacturers Association (SMA). The
Advertising
Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its
adjudication. In March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of
their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is your food full of it?"
fronted by comedienne
Jenny
Eclair.
The Menzies Research Institute in Tasmania, Australia, maintains a
website dedicated to educating people about the potential problems
of a salt-laden diet.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH) established in 1996,
actively campaigns to raise awareness of the harmful health effects
of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising awareness of high levels
of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.
Salt substitutes
Salt intake can be reduced by simply reducing the quantity of salty
foods in a diet, without recourse to salt substitutes. Salt
substitutes have a taste similar to table salt and contain mostly
potassium chloride, which will
increase
potassium intake. Excess
potassium intake can cause
hyperkalemia. Various diseases and
medications may decrease the body's excretion of
potassium, thereby increasing the risk of hyperkalemia. Those who
have
kidney failure,
heart failure or diabetes should
seek medical advice before using a salt substitute. One
manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement that those
taking the following prescription drugs should not use a salt
substitute:
Amiloride,
Triamterene, Dytac,
Spironolactone (Brand name Aldactone),
Eplerenone and
Inspra.
Production

Salt output in 2005
Salt is produced by
evaporation of
seawater or
brine from
other sources, such as
brine wells and
salt lake, and by
mining rock salt, called
halite. In 2002, total world production was estimated
at 210 million
tonnes, the top five producers
being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9),
Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3). Note that these
figures are not just for table salt but for sodium chloride in
general.
Salt disturbance in coastal industries
The omnipresence of salt posts a problem in any coastal coating
application. Salts that are trapped under a coating cause great
problems in coating adhesion. Costs can reach staggering amounts.
Naval authorities and ship builders keep a close eye on salt
concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximum salt
concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and
application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels
to a maximum of 50 mg/m2 soluble salts measured as sodium
chloride. These measurements are done by means of a
Bresle test.
See also

A ship loading salt from a
terminal.
Notes
- Antiquity.ac.uk Antiquity, Vol 79 No 306 December 2005
The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic
exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania Olivier Weller &
Gheorghe Dumitroaia
- Arhives-ouvertes.fr ArchæDyn – Dijon, 23-25
june 2008 Dynamics settlement pattern, production and trades from
Neolithic to Middle Ages
- Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Douchan Gersi's
travels)
- Included among the other, less well-known continental salt
sites with hal(l)- in their names are Reichenhall and Schwäbisch Hall
in Germany, and Hall in Austria.
- Strong's Concordance
- Chabad.org
- "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt", Epikouria Magazine,
Fall/Winter 2006
- Sea Salt is good for you
- References on food salt & health issues.
Salt Institute.
- European Salt Producers' Association
http://www.eu-salt.com/index3.htm
- Roskill Information Services
http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt
- Salt
made the world go round
- Nauticus - Weather Curriculum
- UK Salt Manufacturers' Association
http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsalt-what01.htm
- The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense,
salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information
on salt from the Salt Industry
- The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt
history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on
salt from the Salt Industry
- Discussions of the safety of sodium
hexaferrocyanate in table salt
- HE-620
- Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt, from Tesco
Stores Ltd (UK) states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 98.9%
sodium chloride
- Calculating the listed 590mg of Sodium in a 1.5g serving size (of Smart
& Final iodized salt), it is clear that it is not 99% sodium
chloride since pure NaCl should contain about 870mg of Sodium
- Table
- The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for
Food Grade Salt
- What is Salt?, Salt Institute, 2008
- The Seattle Times: Pacific Northwest
Magazine
- Iodized Salt
- Iodized Salt
- Ferrocyanides in salt for feed use is acceptable as
regards safety for target animals and human consumer...
- Discussions of the safety of sodium
hexaferrocyanate in table salt
- Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Salt
- Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center
Dysautonomia page
- Why Files article Salt and other wounds
- Gary Taubes,
"The (Political) Science of Salt",
Science, 14 August 1998, Vol. 281.
no. 5379, pp. 898 - 907
- BBC News
- Everybody Study adds salt to suspected triggers for
heartburn
- High salt diet reduces bone density in
girls
- Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 3
- Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 18
- Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk'
- Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E et al. Long term
effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease
outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension
prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334(7599):885. PMID 17449506
Free full-text
- Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific Evidence and
Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland, page 12
- Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention
- BBC High-salt diet link to ulcer risk 22 May
2007
- Safety data for sodium chloride - The Physical and
Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory of Oxford University
- Elisabeth Elena Türk, Friedrich Schulz, Erwin Koops, Axel Gehl
and Michael Tsokos. Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an
emetic—report of three autopsy cases. Legal Medicine
2005, 7, 47-50.
- Low-sodium advice for asthmatics should be taken
with a pinch of salt
- Yanomami Indians in the Intersald study,
(accessed 13 January, 2007)
- Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene (ACE)
Insertion/Deletion Polymorphism in Mexican Populations
- Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in
Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites
- Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health
- Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes
- Auckland District Health Board Public Health Nutrition Advice (PDF)
- NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium
- U. S. Food and Drug Administration A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary Salt
- Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for
Americans 2005 "Sodium and Potassium"
- Understanding labels
- Food and Drug Administration A Food
Labeling Guide--Appendix A
- Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack
- Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April
2005 (PDF)
- Salt TV ads
- Salt
Matters
- LoSalt Advisory Statement (PDF)
- Susan R. Feldman. Sodium chloride. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia
of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published
online 2005.
References
Further reading
- Kurlansky, Mark, and S. D. Schindler. The Story of
Salt. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2006. ISBN
0399239987—a children's book about salt.
- Laszlo, Pierre. Salt: Grain of Life. Arts and
traditions of the table. New York: Columbia University Press,
2001.
- Department of Health, Dietary Reference Values for Food
Energy and Nutrients for the UK: Report of the Panel on DRVs of the
Committee on the Medical Aspects of Food Policy , The
Stationery Office.
External links
Salt and health
- Government bodies
Many other government bodies are listed in the References section
above.
- Medical authorities
- Charities and campaigns
- Journalism
- Salt industry