Shiva ( ;
Sanskrit: शिव, ;
; meaning "Auspicious one"), also known as
Rudra
(the "Feared One") or "'The Destroyer"', is a major
Hindu god and one aspect of
Trimurti. In the
Shaiva
tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is seen as the Supreme God. In the
Smarta tradition, he is one of
the five primary forms of God.
Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called
Shaivites or Shaivas (Sanskrit ). Shaivism, along with traditions
that focus on
Vishnu and traditions that
focus on the
goddess are three of the most
influential denominations in Hinduism.
Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of
Shiva linga. In images, he is generally
represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the
Tandava upon
Maya, the demon of ignorance in his manifestation
of
Nataraja, the lord of the dance.
In some Hindu denominations ,
Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva represent the three primary aspects of the divine, and
are collectively known as the Trimurti. In this school of religious
thought,
Brahma is the Creator,
Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is
the destroyer or transformer.
Etymology and other names
A statue of Shiva on Delhi-Gurgaon Highway
The Sanskrit word
Shiva (
Devanagari: , ) is an adjective meaning
"auspicious, kind, gracious". As a proper name it means "The
Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for
Rudra. In simple English transliteration it is written
either as
Shiva or
Siva. The adjective , meaning
"auspicious", is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of
Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities. In the
Rig Veda,
Indra uses this word
to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
In Tamil,
Shiva literally means "the supreme one".
Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name
Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, interprets
Shiva to mean either "The Pure One", "the One who is not
affected by three Gunas
of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One
who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."
Swami Chinmayananda, in his
translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on that
verse:
Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the
One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of
Rajas and Tamas".
The Sanskrit word means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term
is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of
Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective
to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as
Shaivism.
The name Shiva, in one interpretation, is also said to have derived
from the Dravidian word
Siva, meaning "to be red". It is
the equivalent of
Rudra, "the red".
Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his
epithets ("great god"; = great +
deva = god), ("great
lord"; = great + = lord), and
("Supreme Lord").
There are at least eight different versions of the
Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns
(stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in
Book 13 ( ) of the
Mahabharata is
considered the kernel of this tradition. Shiva also has
Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa.
The
Shri Rudram Chamakam, also
known as the
Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva
hailing him by many names.
Historical development
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely
across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Some historians believe
that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over
time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into
a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite
deity is not well documented. Axel Michaels explains the composite
nature of Shaivism as follows:
Like ,
is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic
trends and sects: .
Like ,
the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either
in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric
doctrine.
Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept
separate.
An example
of assimilation took place in Maharashtra
, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding
castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba
in Maharashtra is in Jejuri
.
Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which
case he is worshipped in the form of a
lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include
an identification with
Surya and
Karttikeya.
The Pashupati seal
A seal
discovered during the excavation of Mohenjo-daro
has drawn attention as a possible representation of
a "proto-Shiva" figure. This
Pashupati (Lord of animal-like beings) seal shows
a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Sir
John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a
prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three
faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet
joined. However, this claim is not without its share of critics,
with some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay characterizing
them as unfounded.
Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god
Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as
the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the
god of the roaring
storm, is usually portrayed
in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce,
destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the
Rig
Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BCE based on
linguistic and
philological evidence. A god named
Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is
still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the
"Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods. Furthermore, the
Rudram, one of the most sacred
hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and
addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but
the term
Shiva is used as a epithet for Indra, Mitra and
Agni many times.
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not
universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
To what
extent 's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely
unclear. The tendency to consider an ancient god is based on this
identification, even though the facts that justify such a
far-reaching assumption are meager.
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: ), and the arrow is an
essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva
Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of
Shiva often in later languages. The word is derived from the
Sanskrit root
-, which means "to injure" or "to kill", and
Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of
the name as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names
("Bowman") and ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his
hands") also refer to archery.
Identification with Vedic deities
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by
his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including
Agni,
Indra,
,
, and others.
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification
between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important
factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later
character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is
explicitly noted in the
Nirukta, an
important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is called
Rudra also." The interconnections between the two deities are
complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire
myth of plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its
potentialities and phases, from conflagration to
illumination.
In the
Śatarudrīa,
some epithets of Rudra, such as ("Of golden red hue as of flame")
and ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni
is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his
vehicle,
Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is
sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval
sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have
flaming hair as a special feature.
Indra
The Indologist
Koenraad Elst proposes
that Shiva of Puranic Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic
Indra. He gives several reasons for his
hypothesis. Both Shiva and Indra are known for having a thirst for
Soma. Both are associated with mountains,
rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,
transgression of established mores, the
Aum
sound, and the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda, the term is used to
refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3 )
Attributes
- Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a
third eye, with which he burned Desire ( )
to ashes. There has been controversy regarding the original meaning
of Shiva's name Tryambakam (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम्), which
occurs in many scriptural sources. In classical Sanskrit, the word
ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata,
Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes
translated as "having three eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the
word or means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the
basis for the translation "having three mothers" that was used by
Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell. Since no story is
known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins
suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three
mother-goddesses who are collectively called the . Other related
translations have been "having three wives or sisters" or were
based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations
given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with
the goddess .
- Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the
crescent moon. The epithet (Sanskrit: "Having the moon as his
crest" - chandra = "moon", =
"crest, crown") refers to this feature. The placement of the moon
on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period
when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity
Rudra-Shiva. The origin of this linkage may be due to the
identification of the moon with Soma, and there
is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly
emplored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be
identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.
- Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes
(bhasma). Some forms of Shiva, such as
Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of
cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who
were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices
associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali
canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant
of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: , also spelled
Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.
- Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is
noted in the epithets , "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin,
"endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in
a shell-like (kaparda) fashion". A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a
braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that
is shaggy or curly.
- Blue throat: The epithet (Sanskrit ;
nīla = "blue", = "throat") refers to a story in which
Shiva drank the poison churned up from the
world ocean. (See Halāhala.) The
Hari Vanśa Purana, on the other hand,
attributes the colour of Shiva's throat to an episode in which
Vishnu compels Shiva to fly after taking him by the throat and
nearly strangling him.
Shiva bearing the descent of the
Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look,
folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa
1740
- Sacred Ganga: The Ganga
river flows
from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ("bearer of the river ") refers to this feature. The Ganga
(Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have
made her abode in Shiva's hair.
- Tiger skin: He is often
shown seated upon a tiger skin, an honour reserved for the most
accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.
- Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with
a snake.
- Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is
known as a damaru (Sanskrit: ). This
is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing
representation known as Nataraja. A
specific hand gesture (mudra) called (Sanskrit
for " -hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly
used as an emblem by members of the sect.
- : Nandī, also known as Nandin, is
the name of the bull that serves as
Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ). Shiva's
association with cattle is reflected in his name , or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated
by Sharma as "lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "lord of
animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of
Rudra.
- : The s (Devanagari: ) are attendants of Shiva and live in
Kailash. They are often referred to as the
Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature.
Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against,
they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the
devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader
by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title or , "lord
of the ".
- Mount : Mount Kailash
in the Himalayas
is his traditional abode. In Hindu
mythology, Mount is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the
universe.
- Varanasi: Varanasi
(Benares) is
considered as the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the
holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in
religious contexts, as Kashi.
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox,"
whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of
this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told
about him.
Destroyer versus benefactor
In the
Yajurveda, two contrary sets of
attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: ) and benign
or auspicious (Sanskrit: ) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti
to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex
Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here." In the
Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility,
might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and
brilliance. The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious
attributes appears in contrasted names.
The name
Rudra (Sanskrit:
रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to
traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name
Rudra is
derived from the root
rud-, which means "to cry, howl".
Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the
adjectival form
raudra, which means "wild, of
rudra nature", and translates the name
Rudra as
"the wild one" or "the fierce god". R. K. Sharma follows this
alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara
(Sanskrit:
हर) is an important name that occurs three
times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama,
where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs,
following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an
interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who
captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys."
Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher". Another of Shiva's
fearsome forms is as (Sanskrit: ), "time", and as (Sanskrit: ),
"great time", which ultimately destroys all things.
Bhairava (Sanskrit: ), "terrible" or "frightful",
is a fierce form associated with annihilation.
In contrast, the name (Sanskrit:
शङ्कर), "beneficent" or
"conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was
adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher
(c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as
Shankaracharya. The name (Sanskrit: ), "causing happiness", also
reflects this benign aspect.
Ascetic versus householder
He is depicted as both an ascetic
yogin and as
a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.
When depicted as a yogin, he may be shown sitting and meditating.
His epithet Mahāyogin ("the great
Yogi: =
"great",
Yogin = "one who practices
Yoga") refers to his association with yoga. While
Vedic religion was
conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the
Epic period that the concepts of
tapas,
yoga, and
asceticism became more important, and the
depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation
reflects these later concepts.
As a family man and householder, he has a wife,
Parvati (also known as ), and two sons,
Ganesha and
Skanda. His
epithet ("The husband of ") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes
that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, and
, also appear in the sahasranama. in epic literature is known by
many names, including the benign
. She is
identified with
Devi, the Divine Mother, and
with
Shakti (divine energy). As a
householder, he is known for the great love and respect he has for
his consort.
Shiva and Parvati are believed to be the parents of
Karthikeya and
Ganesha.
Karthikeya
is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu
, Kerala
and Karnataka
) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan,
Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the
names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya. The consorts of Lord
Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the
dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.
Nataraja
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja ( , Sanskrit: , "Lord of Dance")
is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal
dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with
dance and also with music is prominent in the
Puranic period.
In addition to the specific iconographic form
known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit:
) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties
in Tamil
Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of
the dance are the
Tandava, which later came
to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala
associated with the destruction of the world, and
Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses
emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance
attributed to the goddess Parvati.
Lasya is regarded as
the female counterpart of
Tandava. The
Tandava-
Lasya dances are associated with the
destruction-creation of the world.
Dakshinamurthy
Dakshinamurthy, or (Sanskrit: ), literally describes a form ( ) of
Shiva facing south ( ). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as
a teacher of
yoga, music, and wisdom and giving
exposition on the shastras.
This iconographic form for depicting Shiva
in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva
seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving
his instruction.
Mrutyunjaya
Literally translated as "victor over death", this is an aspect of
Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of death as manifested in the
Hindu lord of death,
Yama. The particular
legend in question deals with the sage
Markandeya, who was fated to die at the age of
sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva,
the lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva
is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill to ward off
death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur.
He is worshipped as
such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Tiruchirappalli
, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near
Chidambaram.
Ardhanarishvara
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara
shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as
female. Another term for this state of gender is "Triteeyaprakrti"
(
Eunuch). According to Ellen Goldberg, the
traditional Sanskrit name for this form ( ) is best translated as
"the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman". In
Hindu philosophy, this is used to visualize the belief that the
sacred ultimate power of the universe as being both feminine and
masculine.
Tripurantaka
Lord Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying
the triple fortresses,
Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva's
name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: , ), "ender of Tripura", refers to
this important story.
Metaphysically,
Tripura has been considered by many
scholars to mean the three kinds of bodies of man
viz.
Sthula sharira—the external embodiment, Sukshma sharira—the
intellectual corpus, and Karana sharira—the consciousness or the
soul. The Tripurantaka manifestation of the Lord destroys and
extinguishes the tri-partite compartmentalisation of the being and
merges all three essential componenets of man into the supreme
consciousness. The lord as Tripurantaka destroys the veil of
Maya,
agyaan(ignorance), and affects the unision of the
individual soul with the supreme consciousness.
Astamurti
Astamurti represents the eightfold appellations of Shiva in forms
of Bhava as Existence, Sarva as the great Archer, Rudra as the
giver of sorrow and sufferings, Pasupati as the Herdsman, Ugra as
the Fearsome, Mahan, i.e. Mahadeva as the Supreme soul, Bhima as
the Tremendous force, and Isana as the Directional ruler of the
universe.
Lingam
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in
the form of a
lingam, or
linga, is also important. These are depicted in various
forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
Shiva means auspiciousness, and
linga means a
sign or a symbol. Hence, the
Shivalinga is regarded as a
"symbol of the great God of the universe who is
all-auspiciousness".
Shiva also means "one in whom the
whole creation sleeps after dissolution".
Linga also means
the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during
the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to
Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws
the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself.
Some scholars, such as
Monier-Williams and
Wendy Doniger, also view
linga as a
phallic symbol, although this interpretation
is disputed by others, including
Christopher Isherwood,
Vivekananda,
Swami
Sivananda, and
S.N. Balagangadhara.
The worship of the
Shiva-Linga originated from the famous
hymn in the
Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the
Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a
description is found of the beginningless and endless
Stambha or
Skambha, and it is shown
that the said
Skambha is put in place of the eternal
Brahman. Just as the
Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and
flames, the
Soma plant, and the ox
that used to carry on its back the wood for the
Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the
brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat,
and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the
Yupa-Skambha
gave place in time to the
Shiva-Linga. In the text
Linga Purana, the same hymn is
expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of
the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.
Another theory is that
Shiva linga might have been
originated from the erect memorial topes of Buddhists consecrated
in the memory of
Buddha; and the very poor,
who were unable to build big monuments, used to express their
devotion to him by dedicating miniature substitutes for them.
Scholars
note that similar instances are still seen in the case of Hindu
temples in Varanasi and other sacred places of India where those who
cannot afford to build temples dedicate very small temple-like
constructions instead. Scholars note that during the period
of Buddhist ascendancy, the rich Hindus, in imitation of the
Buddhists, used to erect something as a memorial resembling their
Skambha, and the poor in a similar manner copied them on a
reduced scale, and afterwards, the miniature memorials of the poor
Hindus became a new addition to the
Skambha.
The five mantras
Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important
mantras has five syllables ( ).
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the . As
forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct
iconography:
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated
in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five
organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal
differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in
some differences between texts in details of how these five forms
are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these
associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through
these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes
the efficient and material cause of all that exists.
According to the
Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One
should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold
character, for the reason that the eternal verity of is of the
character of the fivefold Brahman.
(Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)
Relationship to Vishnu
During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with
Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the
Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 BCE), both were gaining ascendance. By the
Puranic period, both deities had major sects that competed with one
another for devotees. Many stories developed showing different
types of relationships between these two important deities.
Sectarian groups each presented their own preferred deity as
supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva. The
Vishnu
Purana (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both to
create the world and Shiva to destroy it. Shiva also is viewed as a
manifestation of Vishnu in the
Bhagavata Purana. In
Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts
independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.
In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and
are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering
pillar of flame. The
Śatarudrīya, a Shaivite hymn, says that
Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu". Differences in viewpoints between
the two sects are apparent in the story of
(also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the
composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual
form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as
Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed
Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of
Shiva.
Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were
shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms.
Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of
both
Vishnu (
Hari) and
Shiva (
Hara). This dual form, which is also
called Harirudra, is mentioned in the
Mahabharata. An example of a collaboration story
is one given to explain Shiva's epithet , "lord of great strength"
(
Maha = "great",
Bala = "strength", = "lord").
This name refers to a story in which
was
given a
linga as a boon by Shiva on
the condition that he carry it always.
During his travels,
he stopped near the present Deoghar
in Jharkhand
to purify himself and asked Narada, a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a
Brahmin, to hold the linga for him,
but after some time, Narada put it down on the ground and
vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the
linga, and it is said to remain there ever since.The story
of Gokarna in Karnataka is also similar in that Ravana, on the way
to Lanka from Kailasa, gave the lingam to Ganesha to keep until he
bathes, but Ganesha fits it in the earth, so the lingam is called
Mahabaleshwara.
As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of
Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and
procreates with her. As a result of this union,
Ayyappa or
Shasta
identified with
Ayyanar is born. Shiva is
also served by Mohini when a bunch of haughty sages were taught a
lesson by Shiva.
Avatars
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several
incarnations, known as
avatars.
Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of
non-dualist
Vedanta, was named "Shankara"
after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of
Shiva. In the
Hanuman
Chalisa,
Hanuman is identified as
the eleventh avatar of Shiva.Sage Durvasa is also incarnation of
Lord Shiva.
Virabhadra who came as shiva
grabbed a lock of his matted hair and dashed it to the ground. And
Virabhadra or veerabathra is the who severed the
Daksha's head as per Shiva's instruction.
Temples
In
Shaivism, Shiva is the god of all and is
described as worshipped by all, including
Devas (gods) like
Brahma and
Indra,
Asuras (demons) like
Bana and
Ravana, humans like
Adi Shankara and
Nayanars, and creatures as diverse as
Jatayu, an eagle, and
Vali, an
ape. Deities,
rishis (sages), and
grahas (planets) worshipped Shiva and established
Shivalingas in various places.
The holiest Shiva temples are the 12
Jyotirlinga temples.
They are Somnath
—Prabhas Patan,
Nageshwar—Dwarka
, Mahakaleshwar
—Ujjain
,
Mallikārjuna—Srisailam
, Bhimashankar
, Omkareshwar, Kedarnath
Uttaranchal
, Kashi Vishwanath
—Varanasi, Trimbakeshwar
—near Nasik
, Rameswaram
—Rameswaram
, Grishneshwar—near
Ellora
and Vaidyanath—Deoghar.
In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly
important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental
substances:
The five sabha temples where Shiva will perform dive different
style of dances are:
Other very famous temples in India include:
- Meenakshi Sundareswarar
Temple
in Madurai
, Tamil
Nadu
- Rajarajeshwara Temple in Taliparamba
, Kerala
- Kottiyur Perumal
Temple, in Kottiyur, Kerala
- Vadakkunnathan Temple
, Thrissur
, Kerala
- Mahadevar
Temple in Ettumanoor
, Kerala
- Mahadeva
Temple in Vaikom
, Kerala
- Shiva Temple in
Tiruvanchikulam, Kerala
- Nellaiappar
Temple in Tirunelveli
, Tamilnadu
~ Largest Shiva Temple in South
India
- Murudeshwara
in Bhatkal
Taluk of Uttar Kannada
District (Tulunadu),
Karnataka ~ World's Tallest
Shiva
- Vemulawada in
Karimnagar
District of Andhra Pradesh
- Kaleswaram in
Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh
- Draaksharamam
in East
Godavari
District of
Andhra
Pradesh
- Bhramaramba-Mallikarjuna
Temple in Srisailam at Kurnool
District of Andhra Pradesh
- Dharmasthala
Manjunatheshwara temple in Belthangadi
taluk in Dakshina
Kannada district (Tulunadu).
- Thayumanavar in
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil
Nadu
- Brihadeeswarar
in Thanjavur
, Tamil
Nadu
- Patteeswarar in
Perur
(Coimbatore
) District of Tamilnadu
- The
pilgrimage site of Kailash Mansarovar
is also noteworthy. The world-famous
Amarnath Yatra to the Amarnathji Cave
in Kashmir (India) is also of significancce.
Temple in Nepal
Popular depictions in Art
See also
Notes
- Hawaii's Garden Island Kauai's Hindu
Monastery
- Flood (1996), p. 17.
- Tattwananda, p. 45.
- Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
- Apte, p. 919.
- Macdonell, p. 314.
- For use of the term as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see:
Chakravarti, p. 28.
- Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg.
122.
- Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, pg.
24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.
- Apte, p. 927
- For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which
follow the teachings of ( ) and which focus on the deity ... " see:
Flood (1996), p. 149.
- Encyclopedia of Indian Tribes By Shyam Singh Shashi, p.
190
- Kramrisch, p. 476.
- For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama
see:
- Kramrisch, p. 477.
- For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: .
- For as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
- This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda,
who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly
clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See
Chidbhavananda, p.5.
- For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp.
71-74.
- For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see:
Sivaramamurti (1976).
- Flood (1996), p. 17
- Keay, p.xxvii.
- Keay, p. xxvii.
- For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not
well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
- Michaels, p. 215.
- Courtright, p. 205.
- For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p.
162.
- 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem
Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English
Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and
been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
- For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible
identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
- For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in
Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
- Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
- For translation of as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p.
312.
- For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood
(1996), p. 29.
- Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
- Keay, p. 14.
- Michaels, p. 216.
- For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p.
158.
- Doniger, pp. 221-223.
- Michaels, p. 217.
- For as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
- For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and
for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p.
32.
- For root - see: Apte, p. 910.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
- For translation of as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see:
.
- For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu,
and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
- For general statement of the close relationship, and example
shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
- For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see:
Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
- For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's
growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and
this identification contributed much to the transformation of his
character as ." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
- For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927),
p. 155.
- Kramrisch, p. 18.
- For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets and see:
Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
- Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and
Others
- For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra,
see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
- RV 8.49; 10.155.
- For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p.
11.
- For text of RV 2.20.3a as and translation as "May that young
adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and
protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p.
48, volume 2.
- For text of RV 6.45.17 as and translation as "Indra,
who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the
insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity"
see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
- For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the
singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O
Indra, favour us" see: .
- For text of RV 8.93.3 as and translation as "May
Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a
richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see:
Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
- For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the
story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p.
151.
- For a review of theories about the meaning of
tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.
- For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and
connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp.
38-39.
- For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as
an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
- For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the
translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp.
37-38.
- For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and
the hypothesis regarding the see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
- For the variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
- For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
- For as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
- For as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p.
56.
- For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch,
p. 472.
- For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva,
see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
- For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra,
and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
- Flood (1996), p. 151.
- Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
- Flood (1996), p. 161.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
- For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see:
.
- Kramrisch, p. 475.
- For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda
hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
- See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
- For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see:
Flood (1996), p. 78.
- Kramrisch, p. 473.
- For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name
see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
- For description of the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p.
8.
- For Shiva supporting upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p.
473.
- Flood (1996), p. 151
- Michaels, p. 218.
- For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
- Jansen, p. 44.
- Jansen, p. 25.
- For use by , see: Apte, p. 461.
- For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull
(Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
- For spelling of alternate proper names and Nandin see: Stutley,
p. 98.
- Kramrisch, p. 479.
- Dictionary of Hindu Lore and
Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
- For identification of Mount as the central linga, see:
Stutley (1985), p. 62.
- Keay, p. 33.
- For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and
overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
- For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets
of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic
elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
- For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the
Mahabharata, see: .
- For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional
etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
- Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit
Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch,
p. 5.
- .
- .
- For translation of as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p.
476.
- For the name translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p.
474.
- The name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is
translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time".
See: .
- For as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the
adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727,
left column.
- For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p.
471.
- Kramrisch, p. 481.
- For adoption of the name by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p.
481.
- For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p.
92.
- For translation of as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p.
481.
- For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see:
Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
- For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions,
see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
- For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p.
32.
- For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti,
pp. 23, 32, 150.
- For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period
influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
- For , and as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see:
.
- For as the oldest name, and variants including , see:
Chakravarti, p. 40.
- For identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p.
479.
- For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta,
Preface.
- For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp.
110-111.
- For interpretation of the form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
- For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta
(Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: .
- For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see:
Chakravarti, p. 62.
- For popularity of the and prevalence in South India, see:
Chakravarti, p. 63.
- For iconographic description of the form, see: Sivaramamurti
(1976), p. 47.
- For description of the form as representing teaching functions,
see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
- For characterization of as a mostly south Indian form, see:
Chakravarti, p. 62.
- For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as , see:
Chakravarti, p. 155.
- Goldberg, p. 1.
- Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique
Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the
translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in
Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
- Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri
- For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic
period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence,
see: Chakravarti, p. 46.
- For the form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
- Flood (1996), p. 29.
- Tattwanandaz, pp. 49-52.
- See Monier William's Sanskrit to english Dictionary
- For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the
Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the
associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp.
182-189.
- For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
- For association with the five faces and other groups of five,
see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For the epithets and , both of which mean "five faces", as
epithets of , see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
- For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p.
187.
- Kramrisch, p. 184.
- Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from:
Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in
progress by 1000-700 BCE see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.
- For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of
Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp.
110-111.
- For Visnu becoming Shiva in Vaishnava myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p.
125.
- For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as
supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.
- For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see:
Bhagavata Purana 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.
- For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer
(1946), p. 128.
- For the lingodbhava myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as
emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.
- For translation of the epithet (IAST: ) as "salutation to him
of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth , and comment that
this epithet "links with " see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.
- For as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p.
481.
- For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to
chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.
- Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.
- For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969),
p. 221.
- For the story of and the linga see: Chakravarti, p.
168.
- Padma Purana 6.236.7-11
- Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
- Website on
Lord Shiva
References
- Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. : Sanskrit Text,
English Translation. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN
81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No.
45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.
- (Third edition). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from
chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata.
- Originally published in 1915.
- Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2.
- This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra
with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of
Names). The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit.
- First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN
81-215-1087-2.
- First revised edition.
- First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972.
(Sri Kalahastheeswara, Andhra Pradesh) -
Air
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(Sri Nataraja) - Ether
, Tamil
Nadu
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in the eastern part of Kathmandu
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