Social democracy is a
political ideology of the political
left and
centre-left on the
classic political spectrum. Social
democracy emerged in the late 19th century from the
socialist movement and continues to exert
influence worldwide.
The concept of social democracy has changed throughout the decades
since its inception. The fundamental difference between social
democratic thought and other forms of socialism, such as orthodox
Marxism, is a belief in the primacy of
political action as opposed to the primacy of economic action or
economic determinism.
Historically, social democratic parties advocated
socialism in the strict sense, which was to be
achieved by
class struggle. In the
early 20th century, however, a number of socialist parties rejected
revolution and other traditional ideas of
Marxism such as class struggle, and went on
to take more moderate positions. These moderate positions included
a belief that
reformism was a desirable
way to achieve socialism.
However, modern social democracy has deviated from socialism, and
supports the idea of a
mixed economy
which incorporates elements of both
socialism and
capitalism. Social democrats aim to reform
capitalism democratically through state
regulation and the creation of programs that work
to counteract or remove the
social
injustice and
inefficiencies they
see as inherent in capitalism. A product of this effort has been
the modern democratic
welfare state.
This approach significantly differs from traditional socialism,
which aims to replace the
capitalist
system entirely with a new economic system characterized by either
state or direct worker ownership of the means of production.
In many countries, social democrats continue to exist alongside
democratic socialist, who stand
to the left of them on the
political
spectrum.
The two movements sometimes operate within
the same political party, such as the Brazilian
Workers'
Party and the Socialist Party
of France
. In
recent years, several social democratic parties (in particular, the
British
Labour Party) have
embraced more centrist,
Third
Way policy positions. This development has generated
considerable controversy.
The
Socialist International
(SI) is the main international organization of social democratic
and moderate socialist parties. It affirms the following
principles: first,
freedom—not only
individual liberties, but also freedom from
discrimination and freedom from
dependence on either the owners of the
means of production or the holders of
abusive
political power; second,
equality and social
justice—not only before the law but also economic and
socio-cultural equality as well, and equal opportunities for all
including those with physical, mental, or social disabilities; and,
third,
solidarity—unity and a sense of compassion for the
victims of injustice and inequality. These ideals are described in
further detail in the SI's Declaration of Principles.
History
Pre-World War II
Many parties in the second half of the nineteenth century described
themselves as social democratic, such as the
General German Workers'
Association and the
Social Democratic
Workers' Party of Germany (which merged to form the
Social Democratic Party of
Germany or SPD), the British
Social Democratic Federation
and the
Russian
Social Democratic Labour Party. In most cases these parties
were avowedly revolutionary socialist, seeking not only to
introduce socialism, but also to introduce democracy into nations
lacking democratic institutions.
Most of these parties were to some extent
influenced by the works of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, who were at that
time working abroad, in London
, to
influence Continental European politics.
The modern social democratic movement came into being through a
break within the socialist movement in the early years of the
twentieth century. Speaking broadly, this break can be described as
a parting of ways between those who insisted upon political
revolution as a precondition for the achievement of socialist goals
and those who maintained that a gradual or evolutionary path to
socialism was both possible and desirable. Many related movements,
including
pacifism,
anarchism, and
syndicalism, arose at the same time; these
ideologies were often promulgated by individuals who split from the
preexisting socialist movement, and held a variety of quite
different objections to Marxism.
The social democrats, who had created the largest socialist
organizations of that era, did not reject Marxism (and in fact
claimed to uphold it), but a number of key individuals wanted to
reform Marx's arguments in order to promulgate a less
hostile criticism of capitalism. They argued that socialism should
be achieved through evolution of society rather than revolution.
Such views were strongly opposed by the revolutionary socialists,
who argued that any attempt to reform capitalism was doomed to
fail, for the reformers would be gradually corrupted and eventually
turn into capitalists themselves.
Despite their differences, the reformist and revolutionary branches
of socialism remained united through the
Second International until the outbreak
of
World War I. A differing view on the
legitimacy of the war proved to be the final straw for this tenuous
union. The reformist socialists supported their respective national
governments in the war, a fact that was seen by the revolutionary
socialists as outright
treason against the
working class; in other words, the
revolutionary socialists believed that this stance betrayed the
principle that the workers of all nations should unite in
overthrowing capitalism, and decried the fact that usually the
lowest classes are the ones sent into the war to fight and
die.
Bitter arguments ensued within socialist parties, as for example
between
Eduard Bernstein, the
leading reformist socialist, and
Rosa
Luxemburg, one of the leading revolutionary socialists within
the SPD in Germany. Eventually, after the
Russian Revolution of 1917, most
of the world's socialist parties fractured. The reformist
socialists kept the name social democrats, while many revolutionary
socialists began calling themselves communists, and they soon
formed the modern
Communist movement.
These communist parties soon formed an exclusive Third
Internationale known globally as the
Comintern.
By the 1920s, the doctrinal differences between social democrats
and communists of all factions (be they Orthodox Marxists,
Bolsheviks, or
Mensheviks) had
solidified. These differences only became more dramatic as the
years passed.
Post-World War II
See also History of
socialism.
Following the split between social democrats and communists,
another split developed within social democracy, between those who
still believed it was necessary to abolish capitalism (without
revolution) and replace it with a socialist system through
democratic parliamentary means, and those who believed
that the capitalist system could be retained but needed dramatic
reform, such as the
nationalization
of large businesses, the implementation of social programs
(
public education,
universal health care, and the like)
and the partial redistribution of wealth through the permanent
establishment of a
welfare state based
on
progressive taxation.
Eventually, most social democratic parties have come to be
dominated by the latter position and, in the post-
World War II era, have abandoned any commitment
to abolish capitalism. For instance, in 1959, the
Social Democratic Party of
Germany adopted the
Godesberg
Program, which rejected
class
struggle and
Marxism. While "social
democrat" and "democratic socialist" continued to be used
interchangeably, by the 1990s in the English-speaking world at
least, the two terms had generally come to signify respectively the
latter and former positions.
In
Italy
, the Italian Democratic Socialist
Party was founded in 1947, and from 1948 on supported the idea
of a centrist alliance. Since the late 1980s, many other
social democratic parties have adopted the "
Third Way", either formally or in
practice. Modern social democrats are generally in favor of a
mixed economy, which is in many ways
capitalistic, but explicitly defend
governmental provision of certain social services.
Many social democratic parties have shifted emphasis from their
traditional goals of social justice to
human rights and
environmental issues. In this, they are
facing an increasing challenge from
Greens, who view
ecology as fundamental to peace, require reform of
money supply, and promote
safe trade measures to ensure ecological
integrity.
In Germany
in
particular, Greens, Social Democrats, and other left-wing parties
have cooperated in so-called red–green alliances.
The
present government in Norway
is known as
the Red-Green
Coalition, whilst the opposition bloc in Sweden
is the
similarly-titled Red-Greens,
with social democratic parties forming the largest components of
both alliances.
Present
Many of the policies espoused by social democrats in the first half
of the 20th century have since been put into practice by social
democratic governments throughout the industrialized world.
Industries have been nationalized, public spending has seen a large
long-term rise, and the role of the state in providing free-to-user
or subsidized health care and education has increased greatly. Many
of the reforms made by social democrats in Europe, such as the
establishment of national health care services, have been embraced
by liberals and conservatives, and there is no support outside of a
radical fringe for a return to 19th-century levels of public
spending and economic regulation. Even in the United States, where
no major social democratic party exists, there are regulatory
programmes (such as public health and environmental protection) and
welfare programmes (such as
Medicare and
Medicaid) which enjoy bipartisan support.
However, since the 1980s, there has been a perception that social
democracy has been on the retreat in the Western world,
particularly in English-speaking countries, where social democratic
values are arguably not as firmly rooted in local law and culture
as elsewhere. In recent years, a number of historically social
democratic parties and governments have moved away from some
traditional elements of social democracy by endorsing
Third Way ideals and thus supporting
both the
privatization of certain
state-controlled industries and services and the reduction of
certain forms of regulation of the market.
The adoption of Third Way ideology by many social democrats has
proved divisive within the broader social democratic community.
Traditional social democrats argue that Third Way ideology has
caused the movement to become too
centrist,
and even that the movement may be becoming
centre-right. In general, apparent reversals in
policy have encountered significant opposition among party members
and core voters; many of the latter have claimed that their leaders
have betrayed the principles of social democracy.
Supporters
of Third Way ideals argue that they merely represent a necessary or
pragmatic adaptation of social democracy to the realities of the
modern world: traditional social democracy thrived during the
prevailing international climate of the post-war Bretton Woods
consensus
, which collapsed in the 1970s. It has,
moreover, become difficult for political parties in the developed
world to win elections on a distinctively
left-wing platform now that electorates are
increasingly
middle-class, aspirational
and
consumeristic.
In Britain, where such an electorate rejected the Labour Party four
times consecutively between 1979 and 1997, Third Way politician
Tony Blair and his colleagues in the
New Labour movement took the
strategic decision to overtly disassociate themselves from the
previous, explicitly democratic socialist incarnations of their
party. The Labour Government that came to power in 1997 continued
the tradition that
Margaret
Thatcher started in the 1980s of selling out nationalized
industries, and the income gap between the rich and the poor grew.
This challenge to traditional social democractic ideals alienated
many
backbenchers, including some who
advocated a less militant ideology of social democracy.
The development of new social democratic policies in this
environment is the subject of wide-ranging debate within the left
and centre-left. A number of political think-tanks, such as
Policy Network and
Wiardi Beckman Stichting, have been
active in facilitating and promoting this debate.
Ideology
In general, contemporary social democrats support:
- A mixed economy consisting of both
private enterprise and publicly owned or
subsidized programs of education, universal health care, child care and related social services for all citizens.
- An extensive system of social
security (although usually not to the extent advocated by
socialists), with the stated goal of counteracting the effects of
poverty and insuring the citizens against loss of income following
illness, unemployment or retirement.
- Government bodies that regulate private enterprise in the
interests of workers and consumers by ensuring labor
rights (i.e. supporting worker access to trade unions), consumer protections, and fair market
competition.
- Environmentalism and environmental protection laws; for
example, funding for alternative
energy resources and laws designed to combat global warming.
- A value-added/progressive
taxation system to fund government expenditures.
- A secular and a socially progressive policy.
- Immigration and multiculturalism.
- Fair trade over free trade.
- A foreign policy supporting the
promotion of democracy, the protection of
human rights and where possible,
effective multilateralism.
- Advocacy of social justice,
human rights, social rights, civil
rights and civil liberties.
Socialism versus Modern Social Democracy:
Socialism |
Market Socialism |
Social Democracy |
Economic Planning, Mixed Economy, Participatory planning |
Market economics, Market-oriented
Mixed economy |
Regulated markets: Social
Market, Mixed-Market, Welfare State |
State ownership or cooperative ownership of the means of
production and heavy industry |
State ownership or cooperative ownership of the means of
production |
Private ownership of the means
of production with minimal public ownership of some industry |
State or public owns resources and major economic institutions,
uses the surplus labor to fund government programs, state-directed
investment |
State, public or worker cooperatives own resources and
enterprises, uses them to fund government programs, sometimes with
state-directed investment |
State mainly funded through progressive taxation, government
regulates private business and provides welfare |
The Economy of the
Soviet Union, various other theories (see Socialist economics) |
The Economy of SFR
Yugoslavia, Lange Model, Goulash Communism, Ricardian socialism, Mutualism, Socialist-oriented market
economy |
The Economy of Sweden(Nordic model), the Social Market Economy in Germany and
Austria, Welfare states |
Political parties
Social democratic
political parties,
which sometimes also include a democratic socialist element,
operate in many developed and developing countries, including
France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, Australia, Israel and
Brazil. Most European social democratic parties are members of the
Party of European
Socialists, which is one of the main political parties at the
European level, and its parliamentary group the
Progressive
Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. Globally, most social
democratic parties worldwide are members of the
Socialist International.
In many cases, social democratic parties are the dominant (India,
United Kingdom, Portugal) or second-placed (Italy, Sweden, Germany)
players within their respective political systems, though in some
cases they are minor parties (Canada, Ireland, Russia).
The
United
States
is the only industrial nation that does not
currently possess a major social democratic party.
Since the 1960s, many social democrats have broadened their
objectives beyond the field of economic policy to include aspects
of
environmentalism,
feminism,
racial
equality and
multiculturalism.
Another notable development is the tendency since the 1980s for
social democratic parties to distance themselves from distinctively
left-wing economic policies such as public ownership and
dirigisme, adopting instead policies that support
a relatively lightly regulated economy and emphasize
equality of opportunity.
This trend, known as the
Third Way, is
controversial among some of the left, many of whom argue that Third
Way parties (such as the UK's Labour Party) have moved too far to
the centre, or even the centre-right. Others, such as the
leadership of the UK Labour Party, reject this critique.
Criticism
The majority of contemporary criticism of social democracy comes
from fiscal or social conservatives and
classical liberals. Critics advance the
following arguments:
- The regulations placed on the market by social democracy tend
to limit economic efficiency
and growth, and impede the creation
of wealth that may be needed to alleviate global poverty.
- Social democratic programs sometimes entail large government
outlays, which can result in sizable budget deficits.
- State provision of education, health care, childcare and other
services is inefficient, limits individual choice, and requires
users to pay more if they opt to use privately-run services.
There is also criticism of social democracy from socialists and
communists, who regard it as an obstacle to truly radical reform of
society. Left-wing critics claim that social democrats are forced
to operate within the constraints of the existing capitalist
system, and that they buy into that system to such an extent that
they eventually become indistinguishable from pro-capitalist
right-wingers. To take specific examples, it is argued that Tony
Blair (UK),
Gerhard Schröder
(Germany) and to a lesser extent
Göran Persson (Sweden) violated the
principles of social justice and equity while in office by
implementing tax cuts, cuts in social spending, privatisation and
deregulation.
Notable social democrats
- This is an abbreviated list of well-known social
democrats. For a comprehensive list, see List of social democrats
See also
Political theory
Social democracy as viewed by critics
Social democracy in practice
References
- Democracy "Social Democracy" Merriam-Webster.
Merriam Webster Online.
- BBC News: South America's leftward sweep,
2005
- The SI's Declaration of Principles
- History of Medicare (United States)
- Brief History of Medicare and Medicaid (United
States)
- BBC News: Sacrifices in the scramble for
power
- The Guardian: Rich-poor gap 'has widened under
Blair' Monday August 2, 2004
- PES Member Parties
- EU facts: Party Politics in the EU
- Members of the Socialist International.
- Labour policies
- Commission for Racial Equality: Clement Attlee
Lecture: Trevor Phillips's speech, 21 April 2005
- Nuevo impulso conservador - La República
- Eduard Bernstein Reference Archive
- Encyclopædia Britannica: Willy Brandt
- Hjalmar Branting: The Nobel Peace Prize
1921
- Encyclopædia Britannica: Wilhelm
Liebknecht
External links
International organizations
Social democratic literature
Criticism of social democracy