Sufism ( ) ,( ) also spelled as
tasavvuf
and
tasavvof according to the Persian pronunciation, is
generally understood to be the inner,
mystical dimension of
Islam. A
practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ( ), though
some adherents of the tradition reserve this term only for those
practitioners who have attained the goals of the Sufi tradition.
Another name used for the Sufi seeker is
dervish.
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose
objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from
all else but God." Alternatively, in the words of the renowned
Darqawi Sufi teacher
Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which
one can know how to travel into the
presence of the Divine, purify one’s inner
self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy
traits."
During the primary stages of Sufism, Sufis were characterised by
their particular attachment to
dhikr
"remembrance [of God]" and
asceticism.
Sufism arose among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the
worldliness of the early
Umayyad
Caliphate (661-750 CE). The Sufi movement has spanned several
continents and cultures over a millennium, at first expressed
through Arabic, then through Persian, Turkish and a dozen other
languages.
ṭuruq "Orders", which
are either
Sunnī or
Shī‘ī in doctrine, mostly trace their origins
from the
Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his cousin
‘Alī, with the notable exception of the
Naqshbandi who trace their origins through the
first
Caliph,
Abu
Bakr.
According to
Idries Shah, the Sufi
philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating the arising
of Islam and the other modern-day religions; likewise, some Muslims
feel that Sufism is outside the sphere of Islam, although generally
scholars of Islam contend that it is simply the name for the inner
or esoteric dimension of Islam.
Etymology
The lexical root of
Sufi is variously traced to
"wool", referring either to the simple
cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, or possibly to
"purity". The two were combined by al-Rudhabari
who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of
purity." The wool cloaks were sometimes a
designation of their initiation into the Sufi order.
The early Sufi orders considered the wearing of this coat
an imitation of Jesus. Sufism
is known as "Islamic Mysticism," in which Muslims seek to find
divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of
God. Mysticism is defined as the experience of
mystical union or direct communion with ultimate reality, and the
belief that direct knowledge of God, spiritual truth, or ultimate
reality can be attained through subjective experience (as intuition
or insight).
Others
suggest the origin of the word is from "Companions of the Porch",
who were a group of impoverished Muslims during the time of
Muhammad who spent much of their time on
the veranda of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi
, devoted to prayer and eager to memorize each new
increment of the Qur'an as it was revealed. Yet another
etymology, advanced by the 10th century
Persian historian
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī is that the word
is linked with Greek word
sophia
"wisdom".
Basic views
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and
will become close to God in Paradise — after death and after
the "Final Judgment" — Sufis also believe that it is possible
to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the
Divine Presence in this life. The chief aim
of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore
within themselves the primordial state of
fitra, described in the Qur'an. In this state
nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken by the single
motivation of
love of God. A secondary
consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all
notions of
dualism or
multiplicity, including a conception of an individual
self, and to realize the Divine
Unity.
Thus Sufism has been characterized as the science of the states of
the lower self (the ego), and the way of purifying this lower self
of its reprehensible traits, while adorning it instead with what is
praiseworthy,
whether or not this process of cleansing and
purifying the heart is in time rewarded by esoteric knowledge of
God. This can be conceived in terms of two basic types of law
(
fiqh), an outer law concerned with
actions, and an inner law concerned with the human heart. The outer
law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions,
marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law — what is often
referred to, a bit too broadly, as
shariah. The inner law of Sufism consists of
rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible
qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues
and good character.
To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher,
as the connection to the teacher is considered necessary for the
growth of the pupil. The teacher, to be genuine, must have received
the authorization to teach (
ijazah)
of another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession
(
silsilah) leading back to
Sufism's origin with Muhammad. It is the transmission of the divine
light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather
than of worldly knowledge transmitted from mouth to ear, that
allows the adept to progress. In addition, the genuine teacher will
be utterly strict in his adherence to the Divine Law.
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in agreeing that
Sufism cannot be learned through books. To reach the highest levels
of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with
and serve the teacher for many, many years. For instance,
Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari,
considered founder of the
Naqshbandi
Order, served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi,
for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently served several
other teachers for lengthy periods of time. The extreme arduousness
of his spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, as
directed by his teacher, to the weak and needy members of his
community in a state of complete humility and tolerance for many
years. When he believed this mission to be concluded, his teacher
next directed him to care for animals, curing their sicknesses,
cleaning their wounds, and assisting them in finding provision.
After many years of this he was next instructed to spend many years
in the care of dogs in a state of humility, and to ask them for
support.
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the
Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in
the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior to
being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days
in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that
instruction.
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences,
or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of
parable,
allegory,
and
metaphor. Although approaches to
teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is
primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such
has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of
mysticism (e.g., as in the books of
Seyyed Hossein Nasr).
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, sprang up
largely in reaction against the worldliness which infected Islam
when its leaders became the powerful and wealthy rulers of
multitudes of people and were influenced by foreign cultures. Harun
al-Rashid, eating off gold and silver, toying with a harem of
scented beauties, surrounded by an impenetrable retinue of
officials, eunuchs and slaves, was a far cry from the stern
simplicity of an Umar, who lived in the modest house, wore patched
clothes and could be approached by any of his followers.
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of in a mosque and taught a
small band of disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced
by Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example Christian
hermits and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and
concentration on God quickly led to the belief that by quelling the
self and through loving ardour for God it was possible to maintain
a union with the divine in which the human self melted away.
Sufi Sheikhs
Bayazid Tayfur al-Bistami
Bayazid is considered to be "of the six bright stars in the
firmament of the Prophet (sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam)", and a
link in the Golden Chain of the Naqshibandi Tariqah. Bayazid
al-Bistami was the first one to spread the reality of Annihilation
(Fana'), whereby the Mystic becomes fully absorbed to the point of
becoming unaware of himself or the objects around him. Every
existing thing seems to vanish, and he feels free of every barrier
that could stand in the way of his viewing the Remembered One. In
one of these states, Bayazid cried out: "Praise to Me, for My
greatest Glory!" Bistami's belief in the Unity of all religions
became apparent when asked the question: "How does Islam view other
religions?" His reply was "All are vehicles and a path to God's
Divine Presence." From a young age, he left his mother stating to
her that he could not serve Allah and his mother at the same
time.
Ibn Arabi
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali
'Arabi][4768] (or Ibn al-'Arabi) is considered to be
one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded
any order (
tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat
al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the
Sufi orders as the clearest expression of
tawhid (Divine
Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often
only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching
became known as the school of
wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness
of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely
inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples,
his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servanthood
(
ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a
longing for any existing thing'.The following
quotations give a flavour of his teaching: 'Whoever witnesses
without ceasing what he was created for, in both this world and the
next, is the Perfect Servant, the intended goal of the cosmos, the
deputy of the whole cosmos'. 'The self is an ocean without a shore.
There is no end to the contemplation of it in this world or the
next'. 'God seeks from you your heart and gives to you all that you
are. So purify and cleanse it [the heart] through presence,
wakefulness and reverential fear'.
Junayd
Junayd al-Baghdadi (830-910 AD) was one of
the great early Sufis and is a central figure in the golden chain
of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in
contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid
Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. In the process of trial* of
al-Hallaj, his former disciple, Caliph of the time demanded his
fatwa and he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is
to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God
knows better". He is referred to by the Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa
i.e. the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of
Baghdad.
- The utterances of Arabic: أنا الحق Anā l-Ḥaqq "I am The
Truth," by Mansur Al-Hallaj led to a long trial, and his subsequent
imprisonment for 11 years in a Baghdad prison. He was tortured and
publicly crucified on March 26, 922.
Mansur al-Hallaj
Mansur al-Hallaj is renowned for
his claim "Ana-l-Haq" (I am the Truth), for which he was executed
for
apostasy. He is still revered by Sufis
for his forthrightness. It is also said that during his prayers, he
would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing
through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my
heresy."
History of Sufism
Origins
In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to
nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one
perspective, it is directly from the Qur’an, constantly recited,
meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin
and its development. Others have held that Sufism is the strict
emulation of the way of
Muhammad, through
which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of
Sufism were transmitted from Muhammad to those who had the capacity
to acquire the direct experiential
gnosis of
God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the
centuries. Some of this transmission is summarized in texts, but
most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed to
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian,
Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib,
who are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of
Islam.
Harith al-Muhasibi was the
first one to write about moral psychology.
Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her
love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry.
Bayazid Bastami was among the first
theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with
fanā and
baqā, the
state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine,
accompanied by clarity concerning
worldly phenomena derived from that
perspective.
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent
institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders
(
tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages. Almost all extant Sufi
orders trace their chains of transmission (
silsila) back
to Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law Ali. The
Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this
rule, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the
first Islamic Caliph
Abu Bakr.
Different devotional styles and traditions developed over time,
reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the
accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these
concerned themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge
(
gnosis), education of the heart to purify it
of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through a
well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations
(
maqâmât) and more transient spiritual states
(
ahwâl).
Formalization of doctrine
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals
began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and
describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of
these are now available in English translation: the
Kashf
al-Mahjûb of
Hujwiri, and the
Risâla of Qushayri.
Two of Imam
Al Ghazali's greatest
treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of
Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was
thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any
way contradict Islamic Law — being instead necessary to its
complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among
Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the
basis of selective use of a limited body of texts. Ongoing efforts
by both traditionally-trained Muslim scholars and Western academics
are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation
for the first time, allowing readers to judge for themselves the
compatibility between Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
Growth of Sufi influence in Islamic cultures
The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the
spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic
cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. Recent academic work on
these topics has focused on the role of Sufism in creating and
propagating the culture of the
Ottoman world, and in resisting European
imperialism in Africa and South Asia.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a
flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a
sort of "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts are still present. In
many places, a lodge (known variously as a
zaouia,
khanqah,
or
tekke) would be endowed through a pious foundation in
perpetuity (
waqf) to provide a
gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant
seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also be
used to pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding
the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi
seekers, a
hospice with kitchens where these
seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of
initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in
the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this
period.
Contemporary Sufism
Sufism suffered many setbacks in the modern era, particularly
(though not exclusively) at the hands of European imperialists in
the colonized nations of Asia and Africa. The life of the Algerian
Sufi master Emir
Abd al-Qadir is
instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of
Amadou Bamba and Hajj
Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and
Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and
Imam Shamil in the Caucasus region. In the
twentieth century some more modernist Muslims have called Sufism a
superstitious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in the
fields of science and technology.
In spite of this recent history of official repression, there
remain many places in the world with vital Sufi traditions.
Sufism is
popular in such African countries as Senegal
, where it is
seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Mbacke suggests that
one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can
accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the
mystical.
In South Asia, four major Sufi orders persist, namely the
Chishti Order, the
Qadiriyyah, the
Naqshbandiyya, and the
Suhrawardiyya. The
Barelwis and
Deobandis are
significant Islamic movements in this region whose followers often
belong to one of these orders.
For a more complete summary of currently active groups and
teachers, readers are referred to links in the site of Dr. Alan
Godlas of the University of Georgia.
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of
success on the path of Sufism.
One of the first to return to Europe as an
official representative of a Sufi path, and with the specific
purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish
-born
wandering Sufi Abd al-Hadi Aqhili
(also known as Ivan Aguéli). The ideas propagated by such
spiritualists may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as
understood by orthodox Muslims, as for instance with
G. I.
Gurdjieff and
Shawni. On the other hand, American- and British-born
teachers such as
Nuh Ha Mim
Keller,
Hamza Yusuf, and
Abdal Hakim Murad have been instrumental
in spreading messages that conform fully with the normative tenets
of Islam.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in
recent years include
Bawa
Muhaiyaddeen,
Nader Angha,
Inayat Khan,
Nazim
al-Qubrusi,
Javad Nurbakhsh,
Bulent Rauf[4769]and
Muzaffer Ozak.
Theoretical perspectives in Sufism
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches
within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to
differentiating among the approaches of different masters and
devotional lineages.
On the one hand there is the path from the signs to the Signifier
(or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker
begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence
that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work
of God, as God's active Self-disclosure or theophany. This is the
way of Imam
Al-Ghazali and of the
majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand there is the path from the Signifier to His
signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker
experiences divine attraction (
jadhba), and is able to enter the path with a
glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine
Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This
does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other
branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the
path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the
Naqshbandi and
Shadhili
orders.
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed
to the late
Ottoman scholar
Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'ân
commentary called the
Risale-i Nur.
This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in
the understanding that this wont, or
sunnah, proposes a complete devotional
spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the
Sufi way.
Contributions to other domains of scholarship
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of
theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor.
For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle
cognition (known as
Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of
the awakening of spiritual intuition in ways that some consider
similar to certain models of
chakra
in Hinduism. In general, these subtle centers or
latâ'if
are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in
order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and
useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this
tradition has been published by
Muhammad Emin Er.
Sufi psychology has influenced many
areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing
primarily upon three concepts.
Ja'far
al-Sadiq (both an
imam in the
Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in
chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human
beings are dominated by a lower self called the
nafs, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the
qalb or spiritual heart, and a spirit
or soul called
ruh. These interact in
various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant
(dominated by
nafs), the person of faith and moderation
(dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for
God (dominated by the
ruh).
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is
Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher
authorized in the Halveti
Jerrahi order.
Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who
converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and
wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.
Sufi cosmology and
Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas
of intellectual accomplishment.
Sufi practices
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an
acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a
physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's impediments
to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to
the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her
maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker
cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to
undertake any of these practices alone and without formal
authorization.
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic
norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the
fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to
be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life
of Muhammad (such as the "sunna prayers"). This is in accordance
with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous
Hadith Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more
than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never
ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love
him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he
hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he
grasps, and his foot through which he walks.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed
(
Aqidah), and to embrace with
certainty its tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away
from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown,
obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self.
(The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is
outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a
Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the
corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her
credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance,
envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us
to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and
now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a
means
for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it
as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a
psychological state generated through breath control. Thus,
practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the
occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all),
given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the
way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more
important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken
person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the
words of Imam
Al-Ghazali words) solitude,
silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.
Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in
the
Qur'an for all
Muslims through a specific devotional act, such as
the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadith literature and the Qur'an. More
generally, dhikr is any activity in which the Muslim maintains
awareness of God.. To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness
of the Divine Presence and
love, or "to
seek a state of godwariness". Some types of dhikr are prescribed
for all Muslims, and do not require Sufi initiation or the
prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good
for every seeker under every circumstance.
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or
sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such as:
recitation,
singing,
instrumental
music,
dance (most famously the
sufi whirling of the
Mevlevi order),
incense,
meditation,
ecstasy, and
trance.
Some Sufi orders stress and extensive reliance upon Dhikr likewise
in
Qadri Al-Muntahi Sufi tariqa,
which was originated by Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi. This practice of
Dhikr called
Dhikr-e-Qulb(remembrance
of Allah by Heartbeats). The basic idea of this practice is to
visualize the Arabic name of God, Allah as having been written on
the disciple's heart.
Muraqaba
The practice of
muraqaba can be likened to the practices
of
meditation attested in many faith
communities. The word
muraqaba is derived from the same
root (
r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99
Names of God in the Qur'an,
al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4: 1 of the
Qur'an. Through
muraqaba, a person
watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires
knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence,
which is ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice within a
Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in
concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and
notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to
turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying
three times: “Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî —
my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek.”
Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence —
Allâh — and as it courses through his heart he remains
attentive to its meaning, which is “Essence without likeness.” The
seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of
all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless
him and grant him peace): “Worship God as though you see Him, for
if you do not see Him, He sees you.” And likewise the prophetic
tradition: “The most favored level of faith is to know that God is
witness over you, wherever you may be.”
Sufi pilgrimages
In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved
currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common
practice is to visit the tombs of saints, great scholars, and
righteous people.
This is a particularly common practice in
South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Khoja Afāq, near
Kashgar
, in China; Sachal
Sarmast, in Sindh
, Pakistan;
and the Darbar-e-Gohar Shahi in Kotri Sharif
. Likewise, in Fez
, Morocco, a
popular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia Moulay
Idriss II
and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh
of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al
Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which is usually televised on Mocorran
National television).
Visitors may invoke blessings upon those interred, and seek divine
favor and proximity.
Islam and Sufism
Sufism and Islamic law
Scholars and adherents of Sufism sometimes describe Sufism in terms
of a threefold approach to God as explained by a tradition
(
hadîth) attributed to
Muhammad,
"The Shariah is my words, the
tariqa is my actions, and the haqiqa is my interior states". Sufis believe the
shariah,
tariqa and
haqiqa are mutually
interdependent. The
tariqa, the ‘path’ on which the
mystics walk, has been defined as ‘the path which comes out of the
Shariah, for the main road is called
shar, the
path,
tariq.’ No mystical experience can be realized if
the binding injunctions of the Shariah are not followed faithfully
first. The path,
tariqa, however, is narrower and more
difficult to walk. It leads the adept, called
sâlik
(wayfarer), in his
sulûk (wayfaring), through different
stations (
maqâmât) until he reaches his goal, the perfect
tawhîd, the existential confession that God is One.
Jalaluddin Ar Rumi, the initiator of the Mavlevi Tariqah, spoke of
the Shariah and Sufism in such terms, " To be a real Sufi, is to be
to Muhammad, salalahu alaihy wasallam, just as Abu Bakr was to him,
peace be upon him."Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen Ibn Arabi mentions,"
When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to
guide others to Allah, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred
Law - even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind -
asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him,
we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a
sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with
the secrets of Allah Most High save one in whom the ordinances of
the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')"
Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that
resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart.
Often these resist direct reference or description, with the
consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took
recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry
refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage
of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people
who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast
over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups
emerged that considered themselves above the
Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing
the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was
disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional
Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly
opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such
as
Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation
while other scholars opposed it.
W.
Chittick explains the position of
Sufism and Sufis this way:
Traditional and non-traditional Sufi groups
The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the
role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore,
the
Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah are seen as crucial for any Sufi
aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all
the famous Sufi masters of the past
Caliphates were experts in
Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman
(faith) and excellent practice. Many were also
Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that
Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and
practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
There is some speculation that some Sufi orders in India might have
become influenced by other traditions after the translation of
Greek philosophical works into Arabic during the third Islamic
century. Sharda highlights these unsurprising similarities by
stating that: "After the fall of Muslim orthodoxy from power at the
centre of India for about a century, due to the invasion of Timur,
the Sufi became free from the control of the Muslim orthodoxy and
consorted with Hindu saints, who influenced them to an amazing
extent. The Sufi adopted Monism and wifely devotion from the
Vaishnava Vedantic school and Bhakti and Yogic practices from the
Vaishnava Vedantic school. By that time, the popularity of the
Vedantic pantheism among the Sufis had reached its zenith."
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi
movements in the West. Examples include the
Universal Sufism movement, the Golden Sufi
Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, the neo-sufism of
Idries Shah,
Sufism
Reoriented and the
International Association of
Sufism.
Rumi has become one of the most
widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the
translations published by
Coleman
Barks.
Islamic positions on non-Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title
Sufi by non-traditional groups to
refer to themselves, and their appropriation of traditional Sufi
masters (most notably
Jalaluddin
Rumi) as sources of authority or inspiration, is not accepted
by some Muslims who are Sufi adherents.
Many of the great Sufi masters of the present and the past instruct
that: one needs the form of the religious practices and the outer
dimension of the religion to fulfill the goals of the inner
dimension of Sufism (Proximity to God). The exoteric practices
prescribed by God contain inner meanings and provide the means for
transformation with the proper spiritual guidance of a master. It
is thought that through the forms of the ritual and prescribed
Islamic practices (prayer, pilgrimage, fasting, charity and
affirmation of Divine Unity) the soul may be purified and one may
then begin to embark on the mystical quest. In fact it is
considered psychologically dangerous by some Sufi masters to
participate in Sufi practices, such as "dhikr", without adhering to
the outer aspects of the religion which add spiritual balance and
grounding to the practice.
Some traditional Sufis also object to interpretations of classical
Sufis texts by writers who have no grounding in the traditional
Islamic sciences and therefore no prerequisites for understanding
such texts. These are considered by certain conventional Islamic
scholars as beyond the pale of the religion. This being said, there
are Islamic Sufi groups that are open to non-Muslim
participation.
Reception
Perception outside Islam
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western
world, and especially its orientalist scholars. Figures like
Rumi have become household names in the United
States, where Sufism is perceived as quietist and less
political.
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the
integration of
Europe and Muslims, sees
Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and
intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies;
it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and
humanism – undogmatic, flexible and
non-violent.
The Influence of Sufism on Judaism
A great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical writings
of Jews in the
Middle Ages. In the first
writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ
al-Ḳulub",
Duties of the Heart,
of
Bahya ibn Pakuda. This book was
translated by
Judah ibn Tibbon into
Hebrew under the title "Ḥovot ha-Levavot".
This was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against their
adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the book seems to have
been inspired by Sufism. Its ten sections correspond to the ten
stages through which the Sufi had to pass in order to attain that
true and passionate love of God which is the aim and goal of all
ethical self-discipline.
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis
Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat of the same
subjects as those treated in the "Ḥobot ha-Lebabot" and which bear
the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab
al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate,
Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls
Perushim. However, the author of the
Ḥovot
ha-Levavot did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism
of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their
ethical principles.
The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceticism of the
Sufis. His distinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law
by various classes of men is essentially a Sufic theory. According
to it there are four principal degrees of human perfection or
sanctity; namely:
- (1) of "Shari'ah," i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws
of Islam, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage,
almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is the lowest degree of worship,
and is attainable by all
- (2) of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a higher
class of men who, while strictly adhering to the outward or
ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of
mental power and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the
Divinity
- (3) of "Ḥaḳikah," the degree attained by those who, through
continuous contemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the
true perception of the nature of the visible and invisible; who, in
fact, have recognized the Godhead, and through this knowledge have
succeeded in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
- (4) of the "Ma'arifah," in which state man communicates
directly with the Deity.
In popular culture
In movies
The movie
Bab´Aziz (2005) directed by
Nacer Khemir tells the story of an old and blind dervish who must
cross the desert with his little granddaughter during many days and
nights to get to his last dervish reunion celebrated every 30
years. The movie is full of Sufi mysticism and even contain quotes
of Rumi and other sufi poets and shows an ecstatic sufi dance.In
Monsieur Ibrahim Omar Sherrif's
character professes to be a Muslim in the sufi tradition.
In music
Madonna, on her 1994 record
Bedtime
Stories sings a song called "
Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving
a high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows an
ecstatic sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing around, Arabic
calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In 1998 she recorded the
song Bittersweet in which she recites Rumi´s poem by the same name.
In 2001 Madonna sang the song Secret during her Drowned World Tour
showing rituals from many religions including a Sufi
dance.Singer/songwritter
Loreena
McKennitt on her record The Mask And Mirror (1994) has a song
called The Mystic's Dream, influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The
band,
mewithoutYou, has made references
to sufi parables, including the name of their upcoming album
it’s all crazy! it’s all false! it’s all a dream! it’s alright
(2009) Lead singer,
Aaron Weiss, claims
this influence comes from his parents who are both Sufi
converts.
A.R. Rahman,
the Academy award winner (2009) the follower of Sufi principles,
scored music about Sufism in the film
Jodhaa Akbar for the song Khwaja Mere
Khwaja.
See also
References
- Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many
Paths, 2000, University of Georgia
- Nuh Ha Mim Keller, "How would you respond to the claim that
Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk
- Dr. Zubair Fattani, 'The meaning of Tasawwuf', Islamic Academy.
Islamicacademy.org
- Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson - "The
Principles of Sufism." Amal Press. 2008.
- An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been
published by Fons Vitae.
- The title of the book establishes this fact. See Google
book search.
- Michael Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism, pg. 1
- Idries Shah, The Sufis, ISBN 0-385-07966-4
- Egyptian Mystics: Seekers of the Way ISBN 978-1-931446-05-1 or
ISBN 1-931446-05-9
- Haddad, Gibril Fouad: Sufism in Islam LivingIslam.org
- Encyclopaedia Britannica
- Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
- Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many
Paths
- Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the
Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 9770018309
- Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction
to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6
- Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the
Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons; see also Shaykh Muhammad
Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi
Tradition, ISBN 9781930409231, which reproduces the spiritual
lineage (silsila) of a living Sufi master.
- Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the
Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 9781930409231
- See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical
Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of the practices and
preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.
- See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak in Irshad: Wisdom of
a Sufi Master, addressed to a general audience rather than
specifically to his own students.
- Cavendish, Richard. Great Religions. New York: Arco Publishing,
1980.
- Naqshibandi Way
- Memoirs of the Saints, translated by Dr. Bankley Behari
- K. al-Wasa'il, quoted in The Unlimited Mercifier,
Stephen Hirtenstein, p. 246
- al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, III.248
- Futuhat, IV.68
- K. al-Tajalliyat, CV
- Memoirs of the Saints, p.108
- IslamOnline.net
- Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique
de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.
- Imam
Birgivi, The Path of Muhammad, WorldWisdom, ISBN
0941532682
- For an introduction to these and other early exemplars of the
Sufi approach, see Michael Sells (ed.), Early Islamic
Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological
Writings, ISBN 978-0809136193.
- J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195120585.
- The most recent version of the Risâla is the
translation of Alexander Knysh, Al-Qushayri's Epistle on
Sufism: Al-risala Al-qushayriyya Fi 'ilm Al-tasawwuf (ISBN
978-1859641866). Earlier translations include a partial version by
Rabia Terri Harris (Sufi Book of Spiritual Ascent) and
complete versions by Harris, and Barbara R. Von Schlegell.
- Several sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences
have been published in translation by the Islamic Texts Society;
see http://www.fonsvitae.com/sufism.html. The Alchemy of
Happiness has been published in a complete translation by
Claud Field (ISBN 978-0935782288), and presents the argument of the
much larger Revival of Religious Sciences in summary
form.
- For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of
the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism, ISBN
978-0292712096; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr, Sufi and
Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali Al-Sanusi and His
Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0810112261.
- Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the
Ottoman World, 1450-1700 , ISBN 978-0791462454.
- Arthur F. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian
Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh, ISBN
978-1570037832.
- Victor Danner - "The Islamic Tradition: An introduction." Amity
House. February 1988.
- See in particular the biographical introduction to Michel
Chodkiewicz, The Spiritual Writings of Amir Abd Al-Kader,
ISBN 978-0791424469.
- Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal," Babou, Cheikh
Anta, The International Journal of African Historical
Studies, v. 40 no1 (2007) p. 184-6
- Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal, Khadim
Mbacke, translated from the French by Eric Ross and edited by John
Hunwick. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2005.
- The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis by Sajid Abdul
Kayum, Chapter 1: Overview and Background.
- University of Georgia
- Sulthaniya.com
- Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical
Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-1-6
- For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart that
are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take root, see
Hamza Yusuf, Purification of the Heart: Signs, Symptoms and
Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart, ISBN
978-1929694150.
- Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the concept
of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Introduction to
Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah,
Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 9770018309.
- Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished
MS.
- Realities of The Heart Lataif
- Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, ISBN
978-0807812716 .
- See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The
Sufi Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony, ISBN
978-0835607780.
- Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN
978-0892810437
- For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused
by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, The Creed of
Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0970284396, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad
Maghnisawi, Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained,
ISBN 978-1933764030.
- The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized
in Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and
Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-0-9.
- See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu Hamid
Muhammad al-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on
Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of
the Religious Sciences, ISBN 978-0946621439.
- Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN
978-0892810437.
- Touma 1996, p.162
- Whas is Remembrance and what is
Contemplation?
- Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical
Introduction to the Sufi Path, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, p.
77.
- Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines
and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
978-0-9815196-0-9.
- Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimentions of Islam (1975)
pg.99
- (source: [p 778-795 of "The Reliance of the Traveller", by
Shaykh Nuh Ha Meem Keller])
- S. R. Sharda, Sufi Thought
- Sufism is not Islam: A Comparative Study ISBN 8186030352
Indian Art: Exotic India
- Ron Geaves, Theodore Gabriel, Yvonne Haddad, Jane Idleman
Smith: Islam and the West Post 9/11, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd., p. 67
- Jamal Malik, John R. Hinnells: Sufism in the West,
Routledge, p. 25
- A Sufi-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in Bahya
ibn Paquda's Duties of the Heart, Diana Lobel
Additional Reading
- Al-Badawi, Mostafa. Sufi Sage of Arabia. Louisville:
Fons Vitae, 2005.
- Ali-Shah, Omar. The Rules or Secrets of the Naqshbandi
Order, Tractus Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978-2-909347-09-7.
- Arberry, A.J.. Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols.
1&2. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1991.
- Austin, R.W.J.. Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire:
Beshara Publications, 1988.
- Azeemi,Khwaja Shamsuddin. Muraqaba: Art and Science of Sufi
Meditation, Houston:Plato Publishing,Inc., 2005, ISBN
0975887548.
- Bewley, Aisha. The Darqawi Way. London: Diwan Press,
1981.
- Burckhardt, Titus. An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine.
Lahore: 1963.
- Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension: Lata'if
Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muhammad's Heavenly
Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
- Dahlen, Ashk. Female Sufi Saints and Disciples: Women in
the life of Jalal al-din Rumi,
Orientalia Suecana, vol. 57, Uppsala, 2008.
- Dahlen, Ashk. Sufi Islam, The World's Religions:
Continuities and Transformations, ed. Peter B. Clarke &
Peter Beyer, New York, 2009.
- Emin Er, Muhammad. Laws of the Heart: A Practical
Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN
9780981519616.
- Emin Er, Muhammad. The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines
and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 9780981519609.
- Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. HarperOne,
1999.
- Fadiman, James and Frager, Robert. Essential Sufism.
Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.
- Farzan, Massud. The Tale of the Reed Pipe. New York:
Dutton, 1974.
- Gowins, Phillip. Sufism — A Path for Today: The
Sovereign Soul. New Delhi: Readworthy Publications (P) Ltd.,
2008. ISBN 9788189973490
- Gupta, R.K. The Science and Philosophy of
Spirituality, 2006, ISBN 8176465453
- Gupta, R.K. Sufism Beyond Religion, 2004, ISBN
8176464112
- Gupta, R.K. Yogis in Silence-The Great Sufi Masters,
2001 ISBN 8176461997
- Khan, Hazrat Inayat. The Sufi message, Volume IX — The
Unity of Religious Ideals, Part VI, SUFISM — Wahiduddin.net
- Lewinsohn (ed.), The Heritage of Sufism, Volume I:
Classical Persian Sufism from its Origins to Rumi
(700-1300).
- Michon, Jean-Louis. The Autobiography (Fahrasa) of a
Moroccan Soufi: Ahmad Ibn `Ajiba (1747-1809). Louisville: Fons
Vitae, 1999.
- Nurbakhsh, Javad, What is Sufism? electronic text
derived from The Path, Khaniqahi Nimatullahi Publications,
London, 2003 ISBN 0-933546-70-X.
- Rahimi, Sadeq (2007). Intimate Exteriority: Sufi Space as Sanctuary for Injured
Subjectivities in Turkey., Journal of Religion and
Health, Vol. 46, No. 3, September 2007; pp. 409–422
- Schmidle, Nicholas, "Pakistan's Sufis Preach Faith and Ecstasy",
Smithsonian magazine,
December 2008
- Shah, Idries. The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books, 1971,
ISBN 0385079664.
- Koc, Dogan, "Gulen's Interpretation Of Sufism", Second
International Conference on Islam in the Contemporary World: The
Fethullah Gülen Movement in Thought and Practice], December
2008
External links
Top topics
Wikis
Quiz
Map
Search
