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Timbuktu (Timbuctoo) (Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; ) is a city in Tombouctou Regionmarker, in the West African nation of Malimarker. It was made prosperous by Mansa Musa (famous for his pilgramage to Mecca), tenth mansa (emperor) of the Mali Empire. It is home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas, and was an intellectual and spiritual capital and centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its three great mosques, Djingareybermarker, Sankore and Sidi Yahya, recall Timbuktu's golden age. Although continuously restored, these monuments are today under threat from desertification.

Populated by Songhay, Tuareg, Fulani, and Mandé people, Timbuktu is about 15 km north of the Niger River. It is also at the intersection of an east–west and a north–south Trans-Saharan trade route across the Sahara to Araouanemarker. It was important historically (and still is today) as an entrepot for rock-salt originally from Taghazamarker, now from Taoudennimarker.

Its geographical setting made it a natural meeting point for nearby west African populations and nomadic Berber and Arab peoples from the north. Its long history as a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout north Africa, and thereby indirectly with traders from Europe, has given it a fabled status, and in the West it was for long a metaphor for exotic, distant lands: "from here to Timbuktu."

Timbuktu's long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is scholarship. Timbuktu is assumed to have had one of the first universities in the world. Local scholars and collectors still boast an impressive collection of ancient Greek texts from that era. By the 14th century, important books were written and copied in Timbuktu, establishing the city as the centre of a significant written tradition in Africa.

Origins

Timbuktu was established by the nomadic Tuareg as early as the 10th century. According to a popular etymology, its name is made up of: tin (pronounced "tain") which means "well" and Buktu, the name of an old Malian woman known for her honesty and who once upon a time lived in the region. Tuareg and other travelers would entrust this woman with any belongings for which they had no use on their return trip to the north. Thus, when a Tuareg, upon returning to his home, was asked where he had left his belongings, he would answer: "I left them at Tin Buktu", meaning Buktu's well. The two terms ended up fusing into one word, thus giving the city the name of Tinbuktu which later became Timbuktu. However, the French orientalist René Basset forwarded a more plausible etymology: in the Berber languages "buqt" means "far away", so "Tin-Buqt(u)" means a place almost at the other end of the world, i.e. the Sahara.

Although Tuaregs founded Timbuktu, it was only as a seasonal settlement. It was merchants from Djennemarker who set up the various markets and built permanent dwellings in the town, establishing the site as a meeting place for people traveling by camel. Like its predecessor, Tiraqqa, a neighboring trading city of the Wangara, Timbuktu grew to great wealth because of its key role in trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, slaves, salt and other goods by the Tuareg, Mandé and Fulani merchants, transferring goods from caravans coming from the Islamic north to boats on the Niger. Thus if the Sahara functioned as a sea, Timbuktu was a major port. It became a key city in several successive empires: the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire from 1324, and the Songhai Empire from 1468, the second occupations beginning when the empires overthrew Tuareg leaders who had regained control. It reached its peak in the early 16th century, but its capture in 1591 by a band of Moroccan adventurers was not the start so much as a symptom of the crumbling of the ancient economy with Portuguesemarker goods that came instead from the river's mouth (Braudel pp 434–35).

Legendary tales

Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus, Ibn Battuta and Shabeni.

Leo Africanus

Perhaps most famous among the accounts written about Timbuktu is that by Leo Africanus. Born al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Wazzan, Leo Africanus was an ambassador serving the Sultan of Fez when, in 1518 he was captured by Christian pirates and delivered to the Pope in Rome. There he converted from Islam to Christianity and wrote a book on Africa. Describing Timbuktu when the Songhai empire was at its height, the English edition of his book includes the description:

The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and scepters of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds.
...
He hath always 3000 horsemen ...
(and) a great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's cost and charges.


According to Leo Africanus, there were abundant supplies of locally produced corn, cattle, milk and butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city.

Shabeni

Shabeni was a merchant from Tetouanmarker, Moroccomarker who was captured and ended up in Englandmarker where he told his story of how as a child of 14, around 1787, he had gone with his father to Timbuktu. A version of his story is related by James Grey Jackson in his book An Account of Timbuctoo and Hausa, 1820:
On the east side of the city of Timbuctoo, there is a large forest, in which are a great many elephants.
The timber here is very large.
The trees on the outside of the forest are remarkable...they are of such a size that the largest cannot be girded by two men.
They bear a kind of berry about the size of a walnut, in clusters consisting of from ten to twenty berries.
Shabeeny cannot say what is the extent of this forest, but it is very large.


Centre of learning

During the early 15th century, a number of Islamic institutions were erected. The most famous of these is the Sankore mosque, also known as the University of Sankore.

While Islam was practiced in the cities, the local rural majority were non-Muslim traditionalists. Often the leaders were nominal Muslims in the interest of economic advancement while the masses were traditionalists.

University of Sankore

Sankore, as it stands now, was built in 1581 AD (= 989 A. H.) on a much older site (probably from the 13th or 14th century) and became the center of the Islamic scholarly community in Timbuktu. The "University of Sankore" was a madrassah, very different in organization from the universities of medieval Europe. It was composed of several entirely independent schools or colleges, each run by a single master or imam. Students associated themselves with a single teacher, and courses took place in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Scholars wrote their own books as part of a socioeconomic model based on scholarship. The profit made by buying and selling of books was only second to the gold-salt trade. Among the most formidable scholars, professors and lecturers was Ahmed Baba – a highly distinguished historian frequently quoted in the Tarikh-al-Sudan and other works.

The manuscripts and libraries of Timbuktu



The most outstanding treasure at Timbuktu are the 100,000 manuscripts kept by the great families from the town.. These manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, have been preserved as family secrets in the town and in other villages nearby. The majority were written in Arabic or Fulani, by wise men coming from the Mali Empire. Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More recent manuscripts deal with law, sciences and history (with unique records such as the Tarikh al-Fetash by Mahmoud Kati from the 16th century or the Tarikh al-Sudan by Abderrahman al-Sadi on Sudanic history in the 17th century), religion, trade, etc.

The Ahmed Baba Institute (Cedrab), founded in 1970 by the government of Mali, with collaboration of Unesco, holds some of these manuscripts in order to restore and digitize them. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre, but there are an estimated 300,000-700,000 manuscripts in the region.

The collection of ancient manuscripts at the University of Sankore and other sites around Timbuktu document the magnificence of the institution, as well as the city itself, while enabling scholars to reconstruct the past in fairly intimate detail. Dating from the 16th to the 18th centuries, these manuscripts cover every aspect of human endeavor and are indicative of the high level of civilization attained by West Africans at the time. In testament to the glory of Timbuktu, for example, a West African Islamic proverb states that "Salt comes from the north, gold from the south, but the word of God and the treasures of wisdom come from Timbuktu."

From 60 to 80 private libraries in the town have been preserving these manuscripts: Mamma Haidara Library; Fondo Kati Library (with approximately 3,000 records from Andalusianmarker origin, the oldest dated from 14th and 15th centuries); Al-Wangari Library; and Mohamed Tahar Library, among them. These libraries are considered part of the "African Ink Road" that stretched from West Africa connecting North Africa and East Africa. At one time there were 120 libraries with manuscripts in Timbuktu and surrounding areas. There are more than one million objects preserved in Mali with an additional 20 million in other parts of Africa, the largest concentration of which is in Sokotomarker, Nigeriamarker, although the full extent of the manuscripts is unknown. During the colonial era efforts were made to conceal the documents after a number of entire libraries were taken to Parismarker, Londonmarker and other parts of Europe. Some manuscripts were buried underground, while others were hidden in the desert or in caves. Many are still hidden today. The United States Library of Congressmarker microfilmed a sampling of the manuscripts during an exhibition there in June 2003. In February 2006 a joint South African/Malian effort began investigating the Timbuktu manuscripts to assess the level of scientific knowledge in Timbuktu and in the other regions of West Africa.

Invasion and decline

A German Map from 1855
The city began to decline after explorers and slavers from Portugalmarker and then other European countries landed in West Africa, providing an alternative to the slave market of Timbuktu and the trade route through the world's largest desert. The decline was hastened when it was invaded by a Moroccan army led by Morisco mercenaries armed with European-style guns in the service of the Moroccanmarker sultan in 1591.

Many European individuals and organizations made great efforts to discover Timbuktu and its fabled riches. In 1788 a group of titled Englishmen formed the African Association with the goal of finding the city and charting the course of the Niger River. The earliest of their sponsored explorers was a young Scottish adventurer named Mungo Park, who made two trips in search of the Niger River and Timbuktu (departing first in 1795 and then in 1805). It is believed that Park was the first Westerner to have reached the city, but he died in modern day Nigeriamarker without having the chance to report his findings. In 1824, the Paris-based Société de Géographie offered a 10,000 franc prize to the first non-Muslim to reach the town and return with information about it. The Briton Gordon Laing arrived in September 1826 but was killed shortly after by local Muslims who were fearful of European discovery and intervention. The Frenchman René Caillié arrived in 1828 traveling alone disguised as Muslim; he was able to safely return and claim the prize.
Timbuktu seen from a distance by Heinrich Barth's party, Sept.
7th 1853


Robert Adams, an African-American sailor, claimed to have visited the city in 1811 as a slave after his ship wrecked off the African coast. He later gave an account to the Britishmarker consul in Tangiermarker, Moroccomarker in 1813. He published his account in an 1816 book, The Narrative of Robert Adams, a Barbary Captive (still in print as of 2006), but doubts remain about his account. Three other Europeans reached the city before 1890: Heinrich Barth in 1853 and the German Oskar Lenz with the Spanish Cristobal Benítez in 1880.

About 60 British merchant seamen were held prisoner there during the Second World War, and during May 1942 two of them, William Soutter and John Graham of the British SS Allende died there and are buried in the European cemetery - surely the most remote British war graves tended by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.

In the 1990s, Timbuktu came under attack from Tuareg people hoping to build their own state. The Tuareg Rebellion was symbolically ended with a burning of weapons in the town in 1996.

Timbuktu today

Street Scene - Caille House


A typical street scene at Timbuktu, Mali, with omnipresent bread-baking ovens
Today, Timbuktu is an impoverished town, although its reputation makes it a tourist attraction to the point where it even has an international airport (Timbuktu Airportmarker). It is one of the eight regions of Mali, and is home to the region's local governor. It is the sister city to Djennémarker, also in Mali. The 1998 census listed its population at 31,973, up from 31,962 in the census of 1987.

Timbuktu is a UNESCOmarker World Heritage Site, listed since 1988. In 1990, it was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in danger due to the threat of desert sands. A program was set up to preserve the site and, in 2005, it was taken off the list of endangered sites. However, new constructions are threatening the ancient mosques, a UNESCO Committee warns.

Timbuktu was one of the major stops during Henry Louis Gates' PBS special "Wonders of the African World". Gates visited with Abdel Kadir Haidara, curator of the Mamma Haidara Library together with Ali Ould Sidi from the Cultural Mission of Mali. It is thanks to Gates that an Andrew Mellon Foundation grant was obtained to finance the construction of the library's facilities, later inspiring the work of the Timbuktu Manuscripts Project. Unfortunately, no practising book artists exist in Timbuktu although cultural memory of book artisans is still alive, catering to the tourist trade. The town is home to an institute dedicated to preserving historic documents from the region, in addition to two small museums (one of them the house in which the great German explorer Heinrich Barth spent six months in 1853-54), and the symbolic Flame of Peace monument commemorating the reconciliation between the Tuareg and the government of Mali.

The image of the city as mysterious or mythical has survived to the present day in other countries: a survey among 150 young Britonsmarker in 2006 found 34% did not believe the town existed, while the other 66% considered it "a mythical place". "Search on for Timbuktu's twin" BBC News, 18 October 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2007 This idea of mystique has also found its way into popular culture: Donald Duck uses Timbuktu as a safe haven, and a Donald Duck comic subseries is situated in the city. In the 1970 Disney animated feature The Aristocats Edgar the butler places the cats in a trunk which he plans to send to Timbuktu. It is mistakenly noted to be in Equatorial Guineamarker.

Attractions

Timbuktu's vernacular architecture is marked by mud mosques, which are said to have inspired Antoni Gaudí. These include

Other attractions include a museum, terraced gardens and a water tower.

Image:Timbuktu Street Scene with Sankore Mosque.jpg|Street Scene with Sankore MosqueImage:Timbuktu Street Scene 2.jpg|Street SceneImage:Timbuktu Street Scene 3.jpg|Street MarketImage:Sahara Desert Tribal Camp.jpg|Sahara Desert Tribal CampImage:Timbuktu_cemetery.jpg|CemeteryImage:Timbuktu Street Scene 1.jpg|Street Scene - Children



Language

The main language of Timbuktu is a Songhay language called Koyra Chiini, spoken by over 80% of residents. Smaller groups, numbering 10% each before many were expelled during the Tuareg/Arab rebellion of 1990-1994, speak Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek.

Climate

The weather is hot and dry throughout much of the year with plenty of sunshine. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year - May and June - exceed 40°C. Temperatures are slightly cooler, though still very hot, from July through September, when practically all of the meager annual rainfall occurs. Only the winter months of December and January have average daily maximum temperatures below 32°C.

Famous people connected with Timbuktu

  • Ali Farka Toure (1939–2006) Born in Kanau, in the Timbuktu region.
  • Heinrich Barth (1821-1865) German traveller and scholar and one of the first Europeans to investigate African history
  • Bernard Peter de Neumann, GM (1917–1972) "The Man From Timbuctoo". Held prisoner of war there along with other members of the crew of the Criton during 1941-1942.
  • Ibn Battuta (1304-1368) Made a famous journey to Timbuktu, along with many others throughout his lifetime.
  • Mungo Park (1771 - ~1806) Was the first European to reach the Niger River. On his second journey down the river he passed by Timbuktu but was not able to make it to the city due to local aggression. He drowned in the Bussa rapids a few hundred miles further down river.
  • Mardochée abi Serour (merchant), born circa 1930 in Aqqa (a Saharian oasis). Traded merchandises between Mogador (presently Essaouira) and Timbuktu, and even owned a house in Timbuktu.


Sister cities



See also



Notes

  1. Timbuktu — World Heritage (Unesco.org)
  2. Timbuktu. (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
  3. Okolo Rashid. Legacy of Timbuktu: Wonders of the Written Word Exhibit - International Museum of Muslim Cultures[1]
  4. History of Timbuktu, Mali - Timbuktu Educational Foundation
  5. Early History of Timbuktu - The History Channel Classroom
  6. For biographical information on Leo Africanus, see Natalie Zemon Davis, "Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth-Century Muslim Between Worlds" (Hill and Wang: New York) 2006.
  7. Un patrimoine inestimable en danger : les manuscrits trouvés à Tombouctou, par Jean-Michel Djian dans Le Monde diplomatique d'août 2004.
  8. Reclaiming the Ancient Manuscripts of Timbuktu
  9. Curtis Abraham, " Stars of the Sahara," New Scientist, 18 August 2007: 37-39
  10. Calhoun, Warren Glenn; From Here to Timbuktu, p. 273 ISBN 0-7388-4222-2
  11. UNESCO July 10, 2008.
  12. Donald Duck Timboektoe subseries (Dutch) on the http://coa.inducks.org/ C.O.A. Search Engine (I.N.D.U.C.K.S.). Retrieved d.d. October 24, 2009.
  13. Notes on The Aristocats at the International Movie Database. Retrieved d.d. October 24, 2009
  14. African star Ali Farka Toure dies, BBC News d.d. March 7, 2006. Retrieved online from BBC Online d.d. September 22, 2009.
  15. Heinrich Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa; being a Journal of an Expedition undertaken under the auspices of H.B.M.'s Government in the years 1849-1855, Volume 1 page 534 (1857). "In the course of my travels, particularly during my stay in Timbuctu". Retrieved d.d. September 22, 2009.
  16. The Daily Express, 10 February 1943. Front Page: The Man From Timbuctoo
  17. Ross E. Dunn (2005) The adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler of the fourteenth century, page 305. Retrieved d.d. September 22, 2009.
  18. Larry Brook, Ray Webb (1999) Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Timbuktu. Retrieved d.d. September 22, 2009.
  19. Charles de Foucauld, Reconnaissance du Maroc
  20. Von China bis nach Mali - Chemnitz ist international Sz Online - 11 December 2003


References

  • . Google books: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3.
  • . Google books: Volume 1, Volume 2.
  • .
  • . Originally published in 1986, ISBN 0-520-05771-6.
  • .
  • . Pages 272-291 contain a translation into English of Leo Africanus' descriptions of the Middle Niger, Hausaland and Bornu.
  • .
  • .
  • .
  • . A facsimile of the 1600 English edition. Internet Archive: Volume 1, Volume 2, Volume 3
  • . Link requires subscription to Aluka.
  • . Link requires subscription to Aluka. Reissued by Anchor Books, New York in 1965.
  • .
  • .


Further reading

  • Braudel, Fernand, 1979 (in English 1984). The Perspective of the World, vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism
  • Jenkins, Mark, (June 1997) To Timbuktu, ISBN 978-0688115852 William Marrow & Co. Revealing travelogue along the Niger to Timbuktu
  • Pelizzo, Riccardo, Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment, Journal of World System Research, vol. 7, n.2, 2001, pp. 265–283, jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol7/number2/pdf/jwsr-v7n2-pelizzo.pdf


External links



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