Universal suffrage (also
universal adult
suffrage,
general suffrage or
common suffrage) consists of the extension of the
right to vote to
adult
citizens (or subjects) as a whole, though it may also mean
extending said right to minors and non-citizens. Although suffrage
has two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities
to vote, the term
universal suffrage is associated
only with the right to vote and ignores the other aspect, the
frequency that an incumbent government consults the electorate.
Historically,
universal suffrage often in fact refers to
universal adult male suffrage.
The concept of universal suffrage originally referred to all male
citizens having the right to vote, regardless of property
requirements or other measures of wealth.
The first system to
explicitly claim to use universal suffrage was France
which is
generally recognized as the first national system to abolish all
property requirements for voting. In theory France first
used universal (male) suffrage in 1792 during the revolutionary
period, although the turmoil of the period made this ineffective.
France has used universal male suffrage continuously since 1848
(for resident citizens), longer than any other country.
In most countries, full universal suffrage - with the inclusion of
women - followed universal
male suffrage by about ten to
twenty years. A notable exception is France, where women could not
vote until 1944.
In the first modern
democracies, the
vote was restricted to those having adequate property and wealth,
which almost always meant a minority of the male population. In
some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as
restrictions on voters of a given religion. In all modern
democracies the number of people who could vote increased gradually
with time. The 19th century featured movements advocating
"universal suffrage" (i.e. male) The democratic movement of the
late 19th century, unifying
liberals and
social democrats, particularly in
northern Europe, used the slogan
Equal
and Common Suffrage.
The concept of universal suffrage does not imply any impropriety in
placing restrictions on the voting of convicted criminals or
mentally ill persons. Such restrictions exist in many countries
with universal suffrage. Equally, some universal suffrage systems
apply only to resident citizens.
Expanding suffrage
The first movements toward universal suffrage (or manhood suffrage)
occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing
property requirements for voting. In the late 19th and early 20th
century, the focus of
universal suffrage
movement became the removal of restrictions against women
having the
right to vote.
Several countries which had enacted universal suffrage had their
normal legal process, or their existence, interrupted during the
Second World War.
Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on
the basis of race or ethnicity. For example, non-
white people could not vote in national
elections during
apartheid-era
South Africa, until the system came to an end
with the first free multi-party elections in 1994. In the pre-Civil
Rights Era
American South,
black people often technically had
the right to vote, but various means prevented many of them from
exercising that right.
Disfranchisement
Many
states within the USA
used to disenfranchise paupers, persons who either paid no direct taxes or
those receiving public assistance.
There are
also differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident
citizens: non-resident Italians
have a
representative at-large in the Italian parliament; U.S. citizens voting
abroad vote as residents of the last state where they (or their
parents) lived; British people, however, cannot vote for their
national
parliament
unless they have lived in the UK in the last
fifteen years. A few nations also restrict those who are
involved in the military or police forces, as it is in the case of
Kuwait.
Many democratic countries, most notably the United Kingdom and
France have had colonies, the inhabitants of which have not, or
mostly not, been citizens of the imperial power, but subjects;
subjects have generally not been entitled to vote for the imperial
legislature.
A peculiarly complex case is that of Algeria
under the
Fourth French Republic;
Algeria was legally an integral part of France, but citizenship was
restricted (as in the French colonies proper) by culture, not by
race or ethnicity. Any Algerian could become a French
citizen by choosing to live like a Frenchman; very few did.
Citizens of an
EU
Member State are allowed to vote in
EU parliamentary elections,
as well as some local elections.
For example, a British person living in
Graz
, Austria
, would be
able to vote in for the European Parliament as a resident of the
"electoral district" of Austria, and to vote in Graz municipal
elections. He would, however, not be able to vote in
Austrian (federal) elections, or Styrian
(state)
elections. Similarly, all locally resident EU citizens
in the UK are allowed to vote for representatives of the local
council, and those resident in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
may vote for the devolved parliaments or assemblies, but only
British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens are allowed to vote for
the British House of
Commons
.
Notable dates for universal suffrage in the world
States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various
times, including
Brunei since
1962.
Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically
using the 
icon.
Universal suffrage by
country/territory
Year |
Country / Territory |
Notes |
1792 |
France |
Universal male suffrage used in 1792, for the National Convention, enacted by law in
1793 and lost with the advent of the Directoire |
1848 |
France |
Universal male suffrage reintroduced by Second Republic. Restrictions introduced to
ensure voters' residence in 1851. Universal male suffrage
reintroduced with the Third Republic
and secret ballot in 1914 |
1867 |
Germany |
Universal male suffrage by all males who had attained the age
of 25. This made the Reichstag of the North German Confederation
the most democratic parliament in Europe. |
1869 |
Wyoming,
USA |
The first U.S. territory to allow
women to run for the legislature and vote. Upon
the state's admission into the Union in 1890, Wyoming was the first
U.S. state to grant women the voting
franchise. Other Western states also had universal suffrage before
1920. |
1879 |
Bulgaria |
The first Bulgarian parliament election was held with universal
suffrage for all males who attained the age of 21. It was shortly
suppressed in 1881-1882 and reinstated afterwards. |
1889 |
Franceville |
Universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race; however,
only whites could hold office. After 1906 it was jointly ruled by France and Britain and is now part of Vanuatu . |
1893 |
New Zealand |
With the inclusion of women becomes the first major nation to
grant universal suffrage; however, women were not eligible to stand
for parliament until 1919. Universal suffrage for Maori men over 21 granted 1867; extended to European
males 1879. |
1894 |
South Australia |
Women's suffrage, but not universal. First state to
also allow women as candidates for parliament. Other Australian
states followed 1899-1908. Indigenous Australians were allowed
to vote, but this right was restricted for some of them from 1902
and not completely restored until 1963. |
1901 |
Australia |
The Commonwealth Constitution does not guarantee universal
adult suffrage, although three Justices in McGinty v Western
Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140; 134 ALR 289 stated that the
requirement did in fact flow from the Commonwealth Constitution, as
interpreted today. |
1906 |
Grand Duchy of
Finland |
As an
autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire , including women, first nation to also
allow women as candidates. The Finnish parliamentary
election of 1907 was the first time when women were actually
elected (19 of 200 MPs). Finland became independent with the same Universal Suffrage
in 1917. However, universal suffrage was only extended to
local elections after independence. |
1907 |
Austria |
Equal suffrage for men |
1913 |
Norway |
Including women, first independent nation to also
allow women as candidates. |
1915 |
Denmark |
First voting rights to anyone came in 1849, and the rules were
changed a number of times. But it was not until the change of the
constitution in 1915 that all men and women had influence on all
chambers. |
1917 |
Estonia |
Two tiered elections were held, with 62 representatives from
rural communities and towns elected in May-June and July-August,
respectively. |
1918 |
Canada |
All
women were granted the right to vote, and since 1920 a uniform
federal franchise was created; Last to enact women's suffrage
provincially was Quebec in 1940;
status Indians gained the right to
vote in 1960. |
1918 |
United Kingdom |
All males over the age of 21 were granted the right to vote and
women over 30, with some property restrictions. |
1918 |
Soviet Union |
With the 1918 Soviet
Constitution; direct voting and the lifting of some political
restrictions not until the 1936
Soviet Constitution. |
1918 |
Austria |
After the Central Powers' defeat
in World War I universal suffrage
including women. |
1918 |
Czechoslovakia |
After the Central Powers' defeat
in World War I |
1918 |
Germany |
After
the Central Powers' defeat in World
War I and the introduction of a democratic system, the Weimar
Republic .
Revoked during 1935-1945 by the Nuremberg
Laws. The restrictions applied also to the territories occupied
by the Nazis during World War II. The German Empire (and the North German Confederation before it) had had universal male suffrage since
1867/71, but only in federal elections; several constituent states,
like Prussia, had had census suffrage and some, like Mecklenburg, had had no state elections at
all. |
1918 |
Hungary |
After the Central Powers' defeat
in World War I |
1919 |
Democratic Republic of
Armenia |
became part of the Soviet Union in 1920 |
1919 |
Azerbaijan Democratic
Republic |
became part of the Soviet Union in 1920 |
1919 |
Democratic Republic of
Georgia |
became part of the Soviet Union in 1921 |
1919 |
Poland |
|
1919 |
Luxembourg |
|
1919 |
The Netherlands |
universal male suffrage in 1917 |
1921 |
Sweden |
Full male suffrage 1911 for those aged 25 and above, but only
to one of two equally weighed chambers. Universal suffrage for men
and women later enacted. |
1922 |
Lithuania |
|
1922 |
Republic of Ireland |
As the Irish Free State in
1921, law changed from previous British law to franchise women
equally with men in 1921. Law subsequently carried over during
changes in constitutional status in 1937 and 1949. |
1925 |
Newfoundland |
Joined Canada in 1949. |
1928 |
Japan |
universal male suffrage enacted |
1928 |
United Kingdom |
Universal suffrage for all. |
1931 |
Ceylon (now as
Sri
Lanka ) |
Indian Tamil disenfranchised
1949 |
1932 |
Brazil |
Replaced the previous system of male suffrage, from 1891, which
excluded homeless, women, priests, the military and
illiterates. |
1933 |
Spain |
Suffrage for men practiced since 1869 to 1923 and in the Second
Spanish Republic (1931-1936). In November 19, 1933 women were
granted the right to vote. Revoked during Franco era (1939-1975)
and recovered since 1977 in the new Spanish Constitution. |
1933 |
Turkey |
1935 |
Burma |
Last free elections held in 1990. |
1944 |
France |
Universal suffrage including women introduced |
1944 |
Jamaica |
Universal suffrage for all adult males and females |
1945 |
Bulgaria |
Universal suffrage including women and men serving in the Army
was instituted by the government of the Fatherland front. |
1945 |
Italy |
Universal male suffrage 1912 for people 30 or older, 1918 for
people 21 or older |
1945 |
Japan |
Universal suffrage including women introduced |
1947 |
Republic of China (now on Taiwan) |
Universal suffrage under the Constitution of the
Republic of China |
1948 |
United Nations |
Provision of "universal and equal suffrage" in Universal Declaration of
Human Rights [Article 21(3)] |
1948 |
Israel |
Universal suffrage since the founding of the State of
Israel. |
1948 |
South Korea |
|
1948 |
Belgium |
|
1950 |
India |
All adult citizens as recognized by the Constitution of India, irrespective of
race or gender. |
1951 |
Argentina |
Universal male suffrage granted in 1912; universal women's
suffrage introduced in 1947. |
1951 |
Ghana |
Universal suffrage granted for the 1951 legislative
election. |
1952 |
Greece |
Universal male suffrage in 1864, with secret ballot; women
given the vote in local elections since 1930 and in parliamentary
elections since 1952. |
1955 |
Indonesia |
|
1955 |
Malaysia |
|
1956 |
Colombia |
Electorate defined on the basis of adult franchise and joint
electorate. |
1956 |
Pakistan |
|
1963 |
Iran |
Reforms under Shah's "White
Revolution" |
1964 |
Afghanistan |
Constitution transformed Afghanistan into a modern
democracy. |
1965 |
United States |
The 19th
Amendment extended to women the right to vote in 1920, and as
African Americans were legally
given the right to vote by the 15th
Amendment in 1870, the façade of universal suffrage may have
seen to be in effect. However many Southern States pro-actively
disenfranchised poor and uneducated black voters through poll taxation, literacy tests and bureaucratic
loopholes, immunity from these restrictions was often handed to
would-be disqualified white voters through grandfather clauses. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 enforced
the 15th Amendment, and in that same year the 24th
Amendment put an end to the poll tax;
full enfranchisement of all citizens was not secured until after
the African-American
Civil Rights Movement gained passage by United States Congress
of the Voting Rights Act of
1965. |
1965 |
Australia |
A murky constitutional history regarding the voting rights of
Aboriginals of Australia
was clarified and ratified at the federal government level and in
subsequent state governments in the following years - see Human rights in Australia for
more. |
1971 |
Switzerland |
Introduction of women's suffrage at the
federal level; for cantonal
elections this was not completed until 1990 . |
1976 |
Portugal |
|
1979 |
European Community (now
European Union) |
|
1980 |
Zimbabwe |
Universal suffrage introduced in the 1978 Internal Settlement
between Ian Smith and Abel Muzorewa. The 1979 Lancaster House
constitution agreed to accommodate the nationalists also affirmed
universal suffrage but with a special role for whites. Universal
suffrage with no special consideration for race came in 1987.
Previously Rhodesia had allowed only whites to vote, under policies
based on legislated racial discrimination. |
1984 |
Liechtenstein |
|
1990 |
Samoa |
|
1994 |
South Africa |
universal suffrage not regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks
and Coloureds were denied the right to vote
during the Apartheid era (1948-1994). White women's suffrage
granted in 1930. |
1996 |
Taiwan |
2002 |
Bahrain |
Universal male suffrage in 1973, although parliament was
suspended and dissolved in 1975 for approximately 30 years. |
2003 |
Oman |
|
2005 |
Kuwait |
Universal adult male suffrage since 1962, for citizens who are
21 or older, with the exception of those who, at the time of
elections, serve in the armed forces and, citizens who have been
naturalized for fewer than 30 years. Note: As of 2005, women
who satisfy the age and citizenship requirements are allowed to
vote provided both men and women vote in separate polling
locations. |
2006 - 2010 |
U.A.E. |
Limited, will be fully expanded by 2010. |
2008 |
Bhutan |
|
2010 |
Qatar |
Municipal elections since 1999. |
2017 (planned) |
Hong
Kong |
Women's suffrage
The first
women's suffrage was
granted in
Corsica in 1755 and
lasted until 1769.
Women's
suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was
next granted in New
Jersey
in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of
"men") and rescinded in 1807.
The
Pitcairn
Islands
granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838.
Various other countries and states granted restricted women's
suffrage in the latter half of the nineteenth century, starting
with South Australia in 1861.
The first unrestricted women's suffrage in terms of voting rights
(women were not initially permitted to stand for election) in a
major country was granted in New Zealand. The women's suffrage bill
was adopted mere weeks before the
general election of 1893.
South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to
stand for parliament in 1894.
In 1931, the
Second Spanish
Republic allowed women the right of
passive suffrage with three women being
elected.During the discussion to extend their right to active
suffrage, the Radical Socialist
Victoria
Kent confronted the Radical
Clara
Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared
to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church
they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however
pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her
point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political
right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both
Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.
References
See also
External links